1650-1702) - Stadtholder of Holland (from 1672) and King of England (from 1688). A major diplomat and politician. He concentrated all his efforts on the fight against the French king Louis XIV. In the first war that V. waged against France (1672-79), he became the organizer of the anti-French coalition. He attracted the Holy Roman Empire, Denmark, and Spain to his side. France, however, managed to distract Sweden from the alliance with Holland and keep the English king Charles II, who received a pension from Louis XIV, dependent on itself. Not expecting to defend his independence with the forces of the coalition he created, V. directed all his diplomatic dexterity to win over England, with which the Treaty of Dover (1674) was concluded. The unsuccessful policies of Charles II and the extreme unpopularity of his brother James (the future king) caused discontent among the English bourgeoisie, which already in the 70s began to look at V. as a possible candidate for the English throne. Wanting to prevent rivalry, Charles II achieved the marriage of Jacob's daughter Maria with V. (1677). In 1679, V. made a deal with France that was beneficial for Holland. Treaty of Nymwegen(cm.). With the beginning of French aggression in the 80s, Britain again created (1686) an anti-French coalition—the League of Augsburg. After the deposition of the English king James II as a result of the “glorious revolution” of 1688, V. became king of England; Then England joined the Augsburg League. After the conclusion of the Treaty of Ryswick (1697), V. insisted on England's armed intervention in the War of the Spanish Succession against France, but died at the very beginning of it. As a diplomat and politician, V. was distinguished by the clarity of his plans, secrecy and exceptional energy in the implementation of his plans.

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William III of Orange

1650–1702) Stadtholder of the Republic of the United Provinces (Dutch Republic) (1672–1689). King of England (1689–1702). Having acted as the organizer of the anti-French coalition, he ended the war against France with the signing of the Nymwegen peace treaties (1678–1679). In 1689 he created the League of Augsburg and began a war with France, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ryswick (1697). Undertook a number of diplomatic efforts to prevent the War of the Spanish Succession. The future monarch of England was born on November 14, 1650. His father, Stadtholder (ruler) of the Dutch Republic, William II of Orange, died eight days before the birth of the heir. From his father, the boy inherited the title of Prince of Orange. William III's mother, Mary, was the daughter of the executed English king Charles I Stuart; she belonged to one of the most noble dynasties, but by this time the power of her family had faded. The boy was 10 years old when French troops occupied his hometown of Orange in Provence and demolished the city's fortifications. Maria and her son were not subjected to repression; they lived in prosperity, although they were excluded from participation in political life. The upbringing of the “state child” was taken over by the States General of Holland, who assigned him “mentors” who monitored his every word and step. Surrounded by spies since childhood, Wilhelm learned to be secretive and cautious. After his mother's death in 1661, he became even more withdrawn. Sometimes the protective cover fell, and the prince fell into a rage that betrayed the indomitability of his character. He had few friends, but they served him faithfully. Sciences, art and literature did not interest him at all. He spoke well in three (or even five) languages, in addition to his native Dutch. Wilhelm easily absorbed knowledge of practical value. In geometry, he studied only what could be useful in military fortification. His knowledge of history was limited to diplomacy and wars. Wilhelm showed an interest in entrepreneurship and finance. At 22, he was already a talented and energetic statesman. His strong character and unbending will helped him overcome serious illnesses and physical weakness. Frail, tormented by asthma and frequent headaches, Wilhelm became an excellent rider and soldier; he steadfastly endured the hardships of camp life. In 1670, Wilhelm was admitted to the Council of State with voting rights. He became the leader of an influential but distant party. He is the heir to great but doubtful hopes. He was always closely watched by both enemies and friends. Ambitious, he was only waiting for an opportunity to lead the republic. And such an opportunity soon presented itself to him. In 1672, Louis XIV, in alliance with two German bishops and with British naval support, invaded the territory of the Dutch Republic, headed by the great boarder Jan de Witt, who maneuvered between the great European powers. The French advanced successfully, and unrest broke out in many cities. De Witt's policy was failing. In July, the Estates General proclaimed William of Orange Stadtholder, Captain General and Grand Admiral of the Republic. On August 20, de Witt was torn to pieces by an angry crowd of Orange fanatics. Wilhelm, like de Witt, was devoted to his homeland, but, unlike his predecessor, he knew how to maintain restraint in difficult moments. After the Prince of Orange became supreme commander, the war resumed and became fiercer. The Dutch opened several sluices on the dams and flooded a vast area. The army of Louis XIV was stopped by water. In 1672, the third Anglo-Dutch War began. Disputes between the two Protestant powers boiled down mainly to the issue of dominance over the sea and, accordingly, over world trade. Military operations were carried out at sea and were most often limited to the capture of ships. A series of defeats inflicted by the talented admiral de Ruyter, the unification of the Anglo-French fleet, contributed to England's withdrawal from the coalition (1674). The Treaty of Westminster was signed between England and Holland. Thus, William managed to prevent the formation of an anti-Dutch alliance between France and England, which was sought by Louis XIV and not particularly opposed by King Charles II of England, who received subsidies from the French court. This was the merit of both the Dutch admirals and William of Orange, a most skillful diplomat. Stadtholder concluded aid agreements with Brandenburg (1672), Austria and Spain (1673). Charles II Stuart was followed by the Bishop of Munster and the Archbishop of Cologne. They declared their neutrality. Brunswick took a position hostile to France. The Diet of Regsburg, on behalf of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, declared war on the kingdom of France. Only Sweden remained on France's side. The appearance of the imperial army on the Rhine forced Louis XIV to divide his troops and ease the pressure on Holland. The nation's army and navy had to fight on many fronts: in Holland, on the Upper Lower Rhine, in the Mediterranean. True, deep contradictions weakened the coalition created by William of Orange. The Habsburg Empire was divided. The governor of the Spanish Netherlands did not obey the stadtholder. Emperor Leopold I was more concerned about fighting the rebellious Hungarians than fighting the French king. The war dragged on. Both warring camps were increasing their strength. The leaders of none of them could count on decisive military successes, especially in a short time. Therefore, diplomats did not stop their work. In April 1675, Holland requested peace terms. They argued for a long time about the place of negotiations. They called Cologne, Hamburg, Liege, Aachen. The British insisted on Nimwegen. The delegates gathered slowly. The dissatisfied French threatened to leave. There were reasons for this: the conference was able to begin work only in 1677, when it became necessary for William of Orange, who was defeated in Kassel, in northern France. The French occupied Valenciennes, Cambrai, Saint-Omer, and successfully fought on the Rhine. Madrid feared that its conditions would be unfavorable for Spain and took a wait-and-see approach. Only William of Orange maintained his presence of mind and encouraged his allies. The new balance of power accelerated the negotiations. In 1678–1679, six peace treaties were signed in Nymwegen: Franco-Dutch, Franco-Spanish, Franco-Imperial, Franco-Danish, Swedish-Dutch, and the Treaty of Brandenburg with France and Sweden. French dominance in Europe was secured, although at the cost of mutual concessions. The territories captured by the French and the city of Maastricht returned to Holland; Louis XIV abolished the customs tariff of 1667, which undermined Dutch trade. William had no doubt that only the first war with Louis XIV ended, followed by others, since Holland could not simultaneously compete economically with England and repel the territorial claims of France. Charles II Stuart died on February 6, 1685. During the last years of his reign in England, the confrontation between Catholics and Protestants threatened to escalate into a new civil war. Catholic James II ascended the throne. Physically weak and mentally limited, James II began by massacring the Anglican clergy. In 1687, James II put seven Anglican bishops on trial, after which he found himself politically isolated. The Whigs and Tories overcame their differences and formed a united opposition. Emissaries were again sent to the Prince of Orange with a request to intervene and rid England of the hated monarch. Wilhelm began to prepare for landing in England. The States General of the Netherlands, without whose consent he could not do anything, approved the Stadtholder's plan as reasonable and promising benefits for Holland. The bold action was carefully thought out and diplomatically prepared. According to the 1684 Treaty of Regensburg, Louis XIV managed to capture Strasbourg, Luxembourg and part of the Spanish Netherlands. Thus, the entire attention of the king of France was focused on the Spanish-Austro-Turkish negotiations. In the second half of the 1680s, the Stadtholder signed treaties with Randenburg and Savoy, which ensured him the support and neutrality of all German and Italian rulers. Perhaps William would not have succumbed to the persuasion of the influential Tories and Whigs, who incited him to overthrow James II. But at the beginning of 1688, the English king recalled six of his regiments from the Netherlands and thereby weakened the Dutch army. For William, this was a strong argument in favor of overthrowing James II. In addition, the second wife of the English king, Maria of Modena, a zealous Catholic, gave birth to a son, the heir to the throne. Consequently, the English crown was slipping out of the hands of William’s wife, and therefore out of the hands of himself. The inevitable strengthening of Catholic influence in England could lead to another rapprochement with France. ...On November 5, 1688, William of Orange landed with his troops at the port of Torbay, in southwestern England. Among the 15,200 soldiers were Dutch, Germans, Italians, and French Protestants (556 infantry officers and 180 cavalrymen). Immediately after the landing, William was proclaimed regent of the kingdom and began a triumphal march to London. On the standard of the troops, William inscribed the motto: “I will support the Protestant religion and the liberties of England.” Although James II's army numbered up to 40 thousand soldiers, he did virtually nothing to save his power. The commander-in-chief of the English army, J. Churchill (later the Duke of Marlborough), ministers and members of the royal family went over to the side of the stadtholder. From the standpoint of traditional succession to the throne, William had the right to claim the English crown as the husband of his wife only if James II died and did not leave an heir. Therefore, part of the population of England, represented by Jacobites and Catholics, saw the Prince of Orange as a usurper. William drew up a manifesto in which he announced that he was coming into defense of English laws, constantly violated by the king, and in defense of the faith, which was being oppressed. James II lost everything. The army and the nation turned their backs on the Catholic king, who was devoid of statesmanship and military talent. The Queen fled London at night from December 19 to 20, James II - a day later, on the 21st. He was detained and returned to the capital, but William of Orange allowed him to leave England. A reckless move? No, with the arrest of the deposed king, in all likelihood, there would be more difficulties and troubles. The execution of kings and czars has never given anyone, anywhere, or any political gain or moral advantage. Parliament decided to consider the king's flight tantamount to his formal abdication. In January 1689, Parliament elected William, along with his wife Mary II Stuart, to the English throne. However, government power was entrusted to William alone and remained with him even after the death of his wife. The royal couple had more than modest power. In October 1689, the Bill of Rights included thirteen articles that limited the king's legislative, financial, military and judicial powers in favor of Parliament. The monarch was deprived of the prerogatives to suspend laws, levy taxes without the permission of parliament, and maintain a standing army in peacetime. Freedom of speech in parliament and the exclusion of Catholics from the English throne were proclaimed. Probably, these articles of the Bill, with the exception of the last one, were not entirely to William’s liking, but he had no choice but to agree to them, and later to other laws that further curtailed the king’s prerogatives. In fact, the events that led to the accession of William and Mary meant not just the replacement of one monarch with another, but also a significant change in the system of government itself. That is why the political changes that took place in England in 1688–1689 are called the “glorious” or “decent revolution”, because it took place within the bounds of decency, without bloodshed and protests of the people. But it was not the thirst for power that controlled William of Orange. He was a convinced Calvinist. Patriotism and religious fanaticism inspired him all his life. “He was a leader, not a genius, but firm and persistent, without fear or despondency, with deep knowledge, able to unite minds, capable of conceiving great things and ruthlessly implementing them. Wilhelm appeared before Europe as a leader whose destiny was to lead anti-French coalitions,” says French academician Gaxotte. William of Orange - the implacable enemy of Louis XIV - was ready to wage war with him to the last soldier. “This is a duel between two people, two types of political principles, two religions,” wrote historian Emile Bourgeois. William skillfully fueled the anxiety of the Protestant population of England, who feared the restoration of Catholicism in the country. Let us add that two different approaches to foreign policy and diplomacy also opposed each other. Louis XIV relied on the power of money, on the financial dependence of European monarchs and princes on France. At the same time, he took into account the deep-seated interests of individual European countries and the contradictions that existed between them. The main goal of Wilhelm's foreign policy was to limit French hegemony in Europe. Immediately after the Peace of Nymwegen (1678), he began a vigorous diplomatic campaign aimed at isolating France as the most dangerous enemy. Religious persecution weakened the position of French diplomacy. The reaction in Protestant states to the repeal of the Edict of Nantes was swift and negative. National mourning was declared in Holland. Already in 1686, there were 55 thousand French Protestant refugees in this country. They joined the ranks of artisans and traders and served in the army. The hostility towards Louis XIV was so strong that even the Amsterdam city council abandoned its traditional pro-French position. William of Orange declared himself the protector of emigrants. He provided them with temples in all the cities of the United Provinces. More than 120 French officers were sent to garrisons. Moreover, they received higher positions than in France, and salaries too. It was a reasonable, far-sighted policy that secured the French military in Dutch and English service. In Wilhelm's correspondence with the emperor and Elector of Brandenburg, plans for a joint struggle against France developed. Largely thanks to the diplomatic dexterity of William of Orange, a secret defensive alliance (the League of Augsburg) was formed in 1686, concluded against France. This league included the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, the Dutch Republic, Spain, Bavaria, the Palatinate, Saxony and, most importantly, Sweden, an old “friend” of France. The union with Sweden (1681) was a brilliant move in the political game of William of Orange. The League of Augsburg was also supported by the Italian states. Louis XIV, who never recognized William as a legitimate monarch, got involved in a war against England, which joined the league in 1689, that is, against almost all of Europe. Formally, the war was over territory. Spanish Netherlands (modern Belgium). William of Orange understood that if Louis XIV managed to occupy these fortresses, France would turn into a superpower that no coalition of states could cope with. It was in England's interests to maintain an approximate balance between the Habsburgs and the Bourbons. Wilhelm was a pragmatist. He would willingly enter into negotiations with Louis if this was required to achieve a balance of power in Europe. The League of Augsburg outnumbered Louis XIV in terms of troops on land: 220,000 soldiers fought against 150,000 French. And the French fleet could not compete with the combined fleet of all the maritime powers of Spain. But the coalition had its weaknesses. Each pulled in his own direction, forgetting about his obligations, neglecting the main goals of the war and pursuing only his own. William of Orange had to constantly look back at the always suspicious parliament, at the Irish, at the Jacobites of all three kingdoms. In Holland, he was not always supported by the notables, who remained faithful to republican ideals. During the nine years of the war, the league's troops were repeatedly defeated on land and won at sea thanks to the united Anglo-Dutch fleet. William openly encouraged pirate attacks on French ships and personally issued letters of marque to the captains of the English fleet. The war ended in 1697. According to the Peace of Ryswick, Louis XP acquired nothing and formally recognized William as the English king. He returned almost all the conquered lands to England and Holland. It was a brilliant victory for William III of Orange. But the War of the Spanish Succession was of decisive importance for defending the principles of the “glorious revolution”, establishing English trade hegemony and increasing the political weight of England in Europe. When Louis XIV decided to make the Bourbons heirs to the Spanish throne, William convinced him to agree to the division of Spanish possessions and concluded two treaties with him (1698 and 1700). However, the French king violated the agreement and, after the death of the King of Spain, Charles II of Habsburg, elevated his grandson Philip of Anjou to the Spanish throne. Louis XIV refused to recognize William as the English king and announced that only the son of James II, who died in France, could be considered the only contender for the English crown. On February 6, 1701, Louis XIV occupied the fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands. At a meeting of the English Parliament in September 1701, William declared the need to protect England. Parliament voted to provide large loans to prepare for war. On September 7, 1701, the Holy Roman Empire, England and the Dutch Republic concluded the Treaty of The Hague. It did not directly declare war on Louis XIV, but the states that signed the text of the treaty pledged not to conclude a separate peace. They demanded the restoration of lost privileges in trade with the West Indies for the maritime powers. Milan, Naples and Sicily must go to the emperor; Spanish Netherlands - become neutral and act as a buffer between Holland and France. At the beginning of 1702, England and Holland declared war on France. Wilhelm was not destined to follow the further course of events: he fell from his horse, injured his leg, and then caught a cold. On March 8, 1702, William of Orange died. However, the subsequent successes of the Duke of Marlborough on the battlefields, the acquisition of economic privileges by England and Gibraltar according to the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 should largely be considered the merit of William III of Orange, who developed the entire foreign policy line of Albion after the “glorious revolution”. William and his wife Mary left no heirs, but they were happy in their marriage. There were extremely rare cases when quarrels arose in their family, and in politics, Mary, despite the fact that she was the daughter of James II, always supported her husband. Note that Wilhelm was a patron of the arts and collected paintings. For his era, Wilhelm was an extraordinary person. He combined ambition and moderation, prudence and tolerance, perseverance and understanding of the situation. During the reign of William III of Orange, England's finances were put in order. Under him, the press was freed from censorship. He pursued a policy of religious tolerance. The “Act of Tolerance”, which allowed freedom of public worship, became a progressive document. However, Wilhelm remained a stranger in England. The reason for this was his withdrawn character, his secluded life in Hamptoncourt and Kensington, his cold attitude towards the Church of England, his sympathy for the Dutch and his severity towards the Jacobites. But in Holland he enjoyed popular love. For almost a quarter of a century (1688–1713), Louis XIV continuously waged wars against the League of Augsburg. France remained the strongest state in Europe, but not dominant. The policy of “European balance” pursued by William III prevailed.

Biography

William III, Prince of Orange, or Willem van Oranje-Nassau (Dutch. Willem Hendrik, Prins van Oranje; November 4, 1650, The Hague - March 8, 1702, London) - ruler of the Netherlands (stathouder) from June 28, 1672, king of England (under named William III, English William III) from February 13, 1689 and King of Scotland (under the name William II, English William II) from April 11, 1689.

English historians almost unanimously give William III as the ruler of England and Scotland, I highly appreciate it. During his reign, profound reforms were carried out that laid the foundation of the country's political and economic system. These years saw the rapid rise of England and its transformation into a powerful world power. At the same time, a tradition is being established according to which the power of the monarch is limited by a number of legal provisions established by the fundamental “Bill of Rights of English Citizens”.

Birth and family

William Henry of Orange was born in The Hague in the Republic of the United Provinces on November 4, 1650. He was the only child of Stadtholder William II of Orange and Mary Henrietta Stuart. Mary was the eldest daughter of King Charles I and sister of Charles II and James II.

Six days before William was born, his father died of smallpox; Therefore, William bore the title of Prince of Orange from birth. A conflict immediately arose over the baby's name between Mary and William II's mother Amalia of Solms-Braunfels. Maria wanted to name him Karl after his brother, but her mother-in-law insisted on the name "Wilhelm" to reinforce the idea that he would be a Stadtholder. According to the will of William II, his wife became his son's guardian; however, the document was not signed at the time of death and had no legal force. On 13 August 1651, the Supreme Court of Holland and Zeeland ruled that custody would be shared by his mother, paternal grandmother and the Elector of Brandenburg, Friedrich Wilhelm, whose wife Louise Henriette was the elder sister of the baby's father.

Childhood and education

Wilhelm's mother was not particularly interested in her son, who saw her quite rarely, and always consciously separated herself from Dutch society. At first, several Dutch governesses, some from England, were involved in William's education. From April 1656, every day the prince received religious instructions from the Calvinist preacher Cornelius Trigland, a follower of the theologian Gisbertus Voetius. The ideal education for Wilhelm is described in the Discours sur la nourriture de S. H. Monseigneur le Prince d'Orange, a short treatise possibly authored by one of Wilhelm's mentors, Constantijn Huygens. According to this material, the prince was taught that he was destined to become an instrument of God's Providence, fulfilling the historical destiny of the Orange dynasty.

From the beginning of 1659, Wilhelm spent seven years at the University of Leiden, where he studied under the guidance of Professor Hendrik Bornius (although he was not officially listed among the students). Living in Delft, William had a small retinue, which included Hans Wilhelm Bentinck and the new governor, Frederick of Nassau de Zuylenstein, William's paternal uncle, the illegitimate son of Frederick Henry of Orange. Samuel Chapezou taught him French (after the death of his mother, Wilhelm’s grandmother fired him).

Grand Pensionary Jan de Witt and his uncle Cornelis de Graaf forced the States of Holland to take responsibility for William's education. This was to ensure that they received the skills for future public service; On September 25, 1660, the States began to act. The first government intervention did not last long. His mother went to London to visit his brother Charles II and died of smallpox in Whitehall; Wilhelm was then ten years old. In her will, Maria asked Charles to look after her son's interests, and now Charles demanded that the States stop interfering. On September 30, 1661, they submitted to Charles. In 1661, Zuilenstein began working for Charles. He encouraged Wilhelm to write letters to his uncle asking him to help him someday become a stadtholder. After the death of William's mother, his education and guardianship became a matter of dispute between Orangemen and Republicans.

The States General tried with all its might to ignore these intrigues, but one of Charles’s conditions in the peace treaty following the second Anglo-Dutch War was to improve the position of his nephew. To reduce the threat from England, in 1666 the States officially declared him a student of the government. All pro-English courtiers, including Zuilenstein, were removed from William's entourage. Wilhelm asked de Witt to allow Zuilenstein to stay, but was refused. Witt, as the Republic's leading political figure, took Wilhelm's education into his own hands, tutoring him weekly on matters of state and often playing real tennis with him.

Early career

After the death of William's father, most of the provinces did not appoint a new stadtholder. The Treaty of Westminster, which ended the First Anglo-Dutch War, had a secret annex, introduced at the request of Oliver Cromwell: it required the adoption of an Act of Exclusion, which prohibited the Netherlands from appointing members of the Orange dynasty to the position of stadtholder. After the Stuart Restoration, it was declared that the act was no longer in force, since the English Republic (with which the treaty had been concluded) no longer existed. In 1660, Maria and Amalia tried to persuade the states of several provinces to recognize William as the future stadtholder, but everyone initially refused.

In 1667, when William III was about to turn 18, the Orange Party again tried to bring him to power, securing for him the positions of stadtholder and captain-general. To prevent the restoration of the influence of the Orange dynasty, de Witt allowed the pensionary of Haarlem, Gaspar Fagel, to induce the States of Holland to accept the "Eternal Decree". By decree, the captain-general of the Netherlands could not simultaneously be stadtholder of any of the provinces. But William's supporters continued to seek ways to raise his prestige, and on September 19, 1668, the States of Zealand proclaimed him "First of the Nobles." To accept this title, Wilhelm had to elude the attention of his teachers and secretly come to Middelburg. A month later, Amalia allowed William to rule her court independently and declared him of age.

The Dutch province, as a Republican stronghold, abolished the office of stadtholder in March 1670, and four more provinces followed. De Witt required every regent (city councilor) in Holland to swear an oath in support of the edict. Wilhelm considered this a defeat, but in fact a compromise was reached: de Witt would have preferred to ignore Wilhelm completely, but the possibility of his promotion to a member of the army's high command now arose. De Witt then admitted that Wilhelm might be a member of the Dutch Council of State, which was then the body controlling the military budget. On May 31, 1670, William became a member of the council with full voting rights, although de Witt insisted that he should only participate in the discussions.

Conflict with Republicans

In November 1670, William received permission to travel to England to persuade Charles to return at least part of the 2,797,859 guilders that the Stuarts owed to the House of Orange. Charles could not pay, but Wilhelm agreed to reduce the amount of the debt to 1,800,000 guilders. Charles discovered that his nephew was a devoted Calvinist and Dutch patriot, and reconsidered his desire to show him the Treaty of Dover with France, aimed at destroying the Republic of the United Provinces and installing William as the "sovereign" of the stump state. For his part, Wilhelm learned that Karl and Jacob were leading lives different from his, devoting more time to drinking, gambling and mistresses.

The following year it became clear to the Republic that an Anglo-French attack was inevitable. In the face of this threat, the States of Gelderland announced that they wished for William to become captain-general of the Army of the States of the Netherlands as soon as possible, despite his youth and inexperience. On 15 December 1671 the States of Utrecht officially supported this. On January 19, 1672, the States of Holland made a counterproposal: to appoint William for only one campaign. The Prince refused, and on 25 February a compromise was reached: an appointment from the Estates General for one summer, followed by an appointment without time limit on William's 22nd birthday. Meanwhile, in January 1672, Wilhelm wrote a letter to Charles, asking his uncle to take advantage of the situation and put pressure on the States to appoint William as Stadtholder. For his part, William would promote the union of the Republic and England and would promote the interests of England to the extent that “honor and loyalty to this state” would allow him. Karl did nothing about this and continued preparing for war.

Stadtholder

In the early 1670s, the Netherlands was involved in endless wars with England and then with France. On July 4, 1672, 21-year-old Prince William was proclaimed stadtholder and commander-in-chief, and on August 20, the de Witt brothers were brutally torn to pieces by a crowd incited by Orangemen, supporters of the prince. Despite the fact that William of Orange's involvement in this murder of the former ruler of the Republic of Holland was never proven, it is known that he prevented the instigators of the murder from being brought to justice and even rewarded some of them: Hendrik Verhoeff with money, and others like Jan van Banheim and Jan Kifit - high positions. This damaged his reputation as much as his subsequent punitive actions in Scotland, known to history as the Glencoe Massacre.

During these years, he showed remarkable abilities as a ruler, a strong character, tempered during the difficult years of Republican rule. With energetic measures, the young ruler stopped the French advance, then formed a coalition with Brandenburg, Austria and Spain, with the help of which he won a number of victories and brought England out of the war (1674).

In 1677, William married his cousin Mary Stuart, daughter of the Duke of York, the future King of England, James II. Contemporaries reported that the relationship between the spouses was warm and friendly. This alliance and the defeat of the army of Louis XIV at Saint-Denis in 1678 ended the war with France (though not for long).

"Glorious Revolution" (1688)

In 1685, after the death of the English king Charles II, who had no legitimate children, William’s uncle and father-in-law, James II, who was unpopular among the people and among the ruling class, ascended the throne of England and Scotland. He was credited with the desire to restore Catholicism in England and conclude an alliance with France. For some time, Jacob's opponents hoped for the death of the elderly king, after which the throne of England would be taken by his Protestant daughter Mary, William's wife. However, in 1688, 55-year-old James II unexpectedly gave birth to a son, and this event served as the impetus for the coup. In rejection of the policies of King James, the main political groups united and agreed to invite the Dutch couple, Mary and William, to replace the “Catholic tyrant.” By this time, William had visited England several times and gained great popularity there, especially among the Whigs.

Also in 1688, James II intensified the persecution of the Anglican clergy and fell out with the Tories. He had practically no defenders left (Louis XIV was busy with the war for the Palatinate succession). The united opposition - parliament, clergy, townspeople, landowners - secretly sent a call to William to lead a coup and become king of England and Scotland.

On November 15, 1688, William landed in England with an army of 40 thousand infantry and 5 thousand cavalry. On his standard were inscribed the words: “I will support Protestantism and the freedom of England.” He met no resistance: the royal army, the ministry and even members of the royal family immediately went over to his side. The decisive factor was the support of the coup by the army commander, Baron John Churchill, who had previously been very close to King James II.

The old king fled to France. However, he did not accept defeat: in 1690, when Ireland rebelled against the British, James received military assistance from France and attempted to return to power. But William personally led the Irish expedition and in the battle on the Boyne River the Catholic army was defeated.

In January 1689, Parliament proclaimed William and his wife monarchs of England and Scotland on equal terms. The Whigs initially offered William to become a consort (simply the husband of the reigning Queen Mary), but Wilhelm categorically refused. Five years later, Maria died, and Wilhelm subsequently led the country himself. He ruled England, Scotland, Ireland, also maintaining his power in the Netherlands - until the end of his life.

King of England and Scotland (1688-1702)

During the first years of his reign, William fought against Jacob's supporters (Jacobites), defeating them first in Scotland (1689) and then in Ireland (at the Battle of the Boyne, 1690). Irish Protestants (Orangeists) still celebrate this day as a holiday and honor William of Orange as a hero. The orange color (the family color of the Orange dynasty) on the flag of Ireland is a symbol of Protestants.

An irreconcilable opponent of the most powerful Catholic king of Europe, Louis XIV, William repeatedly fought against him on land and at sea while he was the ruler of the Netherlands. Louis did not recognize William as king of England and Scotland, supporting the claims of James II. To fight the Bourbon power, William of Orange created a powerful army and the most significant English fleet since the time of Elizabeth I. After a long series of wars, Louis XIV was forced to make peace and recognize William as the legitimate king of England (1697). Nevertheless, Louis XIV continued to support James II, and after his death in 1701, his son, who declared himself James III.

William was personally acquainted and friendly with the Russian Tsar Peter I, who during the Great Embassy (1697-1698) visited the Prince of Orange in both his possessions - both in the Netherlands and in England.

The reign of William III marked a decisive transition to a constitutional (parliamentary) monarchy. Under him, the Bill of Rights was adopted (1689) and a number of other fundamental acts that determined the development of the English constitutional and legal system for the next two centuries. The Act of Tolerance also played a positive role. It should be noted that religious toleration applied exclusively to Protestants who did not belong to the Church of England; infringements of the rights of Catholics persisted until the second half of the 19th century.

In 1694, with the support of the king, the Bank of England was founded, and in 1702, shortly before his death, the king approved the creation of a united East India Company. The flowering of literature (Jonathan Swift), science (Isaac Newton), architecture (Christopher Wren), and navigation began. Preparations for the mass colonization of North America are being completed. This is commemorated by the name of the capital of the Bahamas, Nassau (1695).

Shortly before his death (in 1701, after the death of the Duke of Gloucester’s infant nephew), William approved the “Act of Succession to the Throne,” according to which Catholics and persons married to Catholics could not occupy the British throne.

At the end of his life he suffered from asthma.

Wilhelm died of pneumonia, which was a complication after a broken shoulder. The king broke his shoulder in a fall from his horse, and it was rumored that it was caused by the horse stepping into a wormhole. The Jacobites then willingly raised a toast “to that mole” (“the gentleman in the black vest”). William and Mary had no children, and Mary's sister, Anne, took the throne.

The history of William III of Orange was rich in events, political and military victories. Most English historians highly appreciate his activities as ruler of England and Scotland. At this time, he managed to carry out a number of profound reforms that laid the foundation for the political and economic system of the country.

And also began the rapid rise of the Kingdom of England, which led to its transformation into a powerful power. At the same time, a tradition was established related to the limitation of royal power. This will be discussed in the short biography of William III of Orange given below.

Birth, family

The birthplace of Willem van Oranje Nassou is the de facto capital of the Republic of the United Provinces of The Hague. He was born on November 4, 1650. Looking ahead, let's say about the years of the reign of William III of Orange. He became the ruler of the Netherlands in the position of stadhauder (literally “holder of the city”) in 1672. King of England and Scotland - in 1689. He ruled until his death - March 8, 1702 - in London. It should be noted that our hero was on the throne of Scotland under the name of William 2. Moreover, he became the English king a little earlier - in February, and the Scottish one - in April.

In the family of his father, Stadtholder Wilhelm number two, Prince of Orange, the prince was the only child. In a number of European states, a stadtholder, also known as a stadtholder, is a governor, a person who governs any of the territories of a given state. A position similar to the Doge of Venice.

His mother was Maria Henrietta Stuart - the eldest daughter of the king of England, as well as Scotland and Ireland, Charles I. Her brothers were the sons of Charles I, the future kings Charles II and James II. Thus, the family of William III of Orange was royal.

Name dispute

Literally two days after the birth of the future Prince of Orange, his father died of smallpox. Both his father's titles - prince and stadtholder - were not inherited by law, so little Wilhelm did not receive them right away. Meanwhile, his mother and paternal grandmother came into conflict over what to name the baby. The first wanted to name him Charles, in honor of her father the king. The second managed to insist on naming the boy Wilhelm. She hoped that her grandson would become a stadtholder.

When drawing up his will, Wilhelm's father planned to appoint his mother as his son's guardian, but he did not have time to sign the document. According to a Supreme Court decision in 1651, custody was divided between the child's mother, grandmother and uncle.

Childhood, education

His mother, Maria Henrietta Stuart, did not show much interest in her son. She saw him rarely, always consciously separating herself from Dutch society. At first, the education of William III of Orange was left in the hands of several Dutch governesses. However, some of them were originally from England. Beginning in 1656, the future Prince of Orange began to receive daily religious instructions given to him by a Calvinist preacher.

A short treatise on the ideal education of the future ruler, the author of which, presumably, was one of the mentors of Orange, has reached our time. According to this material, the prince was constantly told that fate had determined that his life's goal was to become an instrument in the hands of God to fulfill the historical destiny of the Orange family.

Continuing Education

From 1959, Wilhelm studied at Leiden University for 7 years, albeit unofficially. After this, Jan de Witt, the grand pensionary, who at that moment actually ruled Holland, and his uncle forced the Dutch states to take responsibility for the formation of Orange. Since this was supposed to serve as a guarantee that he would receive the skills necessary to perform government duties.

Since then, a struggle began for influence on William and his future fate between representatives of the United Dutch Provinces on the one hand and the English royal dynasty on the other.

Dutch intervention in the prince's education began in the autumn of 1660, but it did not last long. When the boy was 10 years old, his mother died of smallpox. In her will, she asked King Charles II to look after her son's interests. In this regard, Charles put forward a demand to the States that they stop interfering in the fate of Wilhelm.

From the end of September 1661, the interference ceased, and the king's representative, Zuilestein, was “assigned” to the boy. As a result of the 2nd Anglo-Dutch War, a peace treaty was signed, one of the conditions of which was to improve the position of the royal nephew. The US leadership officially declared Wilhelm a student of the government.

After this, Jan de Witt took the boy’s education into his own hands. Every week he mentored the future William III of Orange on issues related to government, and also played with him a game called “real tennis” (a prototype of lawn tennis). The next great pensioner, Gaspar Fagel, showed more commitment to William's interests.

Carier start

The beginning of the career of William III of Orange was far from cloudless. After his father died, some of the provinces stopped appointing the next stadtholder. When the peace Treaty of Westminster was signed, summing up the results of the 1st Anglo-Dutch War, he demanded the conclusion of a secret annex to it.

According to this annex, in order to prohibit the appointment by Holland of representatives of the Orange dynasty to the position of stadtholder, it is necessary to adopt a special act of elimination. However, since the English Republic (with which the Dutch concluded a treaty) ceased to exist after the Stuart restoration, it was recognized that this act had no legal force.

In 1660, William's mother and grandmother made an attempt to persuade some of the provinces to recognize him as a future Stadthouder, but initially none of them agreed. On the eve of the young man's eighteenth birthday, in 1667, the Orange Party made another attempt to bring him to power by assigning him the positions of stadder and captain-general.

Further confrontation

To prevent the restoration of the influence of the Orange princes, de Witt “gave the go-ahead” to the Haarlem pensioner Gaspar Fagel to call on the States of Holland to adopt the so-called Eternal Edict. According to the adopted document, the positions of captain-general and stadtholder of any of the provinces could not be combined in the person of the same person.

However, Wilhelm's supporters did not stop searching for ways that could lead to raising his prestige. To this end, in September 1668, he was proclaimed "First of the Nobles" by the States of Zealand. To accept this title, Wilhelm was forced to secretly arrive in Middelburg unnoticed by his teachers. A month later, his grandmother Amalia gave him permission to independently manage her courtyard, announcing his coming of age.

Abolition of the position of stadtholder

Being a stronghold of the Republicans, the Dutch province in 1670 decided to abolish the position of stadtholder, and 4 more provinces followed its example. At the same time, de Witt demanded that each member of the city council (regent) take an oath supporting the edict. Wilhelm considered this development of events his defeat.

However, his chances for promotion were not exhausted. He had the opportunity to become a member of the army's high command. In addition, de Witt admitted that there was a possibility of making Wilhelm a member of the State Council of the Netherlands. The latter at that time was an authoritative body with the prerogative of controlling the military budget. At the end of May 1670, the Prince of Orange was admitted to the council with voting rights, despite the fact that de Witt insisted solely on participating in the discussions.

Trip to England

In November 1670, William was given permission to travel to England, during which he tried to convince King Charles I to at least partially repay the debt of the Orange dynasty, amounting to about 3 million guilders. At the same time, the prince agreed to reduce the amount of debt to 1.8 million.

The English king had to make sure that his nephew was a devoted Calvinist and patriot of Holland. Therefore, he canceled his plans to appoint him as head of an entity completely dependent on the English crown, into which he, with the help of France, sought to transform the Republic of the United Provinces, effectively destroying it.

At the same time, William saw that his relatives, the king’s sons Charles and Jacob, unlike him, led a life filled with mistresses and gambling.

Republican position

The next year, it became clear to the leaders of the Republic that it could not avoid the invasion of the British and French. In the face of this threat, the States of Gelderland put forward a proposal to appoint Wilhelm to the post of captain-general in the near future, despite his youth and lack of experience. The states of Utrecht supported this proposal.

However, the States of Holland in 1672 offered to appoint the Prince of Orange to this position for only one military campaign, to which he refused. After this, it was decided to compromise: first, appoint for one summer, and then, when the prince reaches 22 years old, make the appointment permanent.

At the same time, William sent a letter to King Charles, where he invited him, taking advantage of the situation, to put pressure on the Dutch States so that they appointed his nephew as stadtholder. He, for his part, was ready to promote the union of England with the Republic. However, there was no reaction from Charles; he continued to prepare for war.

Proclamation as Stadtholder and marriage

The beginning of the 1670s was marked for the Netherlands by involvement in long wars, first with England, and then with France. On June 4, 1672, at the age of 21, Prince Wilhelm was finally appointed both stadtholder and commander-in-chief at the same time. Shortly after this, in August, the de Witt brothers were brutally torn to pieces by a mob provoked by the prince's supporters, the Orangemen.

As for the involvement of the Prince of Orange himself in this cruel action, it has not been proven, but there is information that he prevented its instigators from being brought to trial. Moreover, he nominated some of them for rewards in the form of money or high positions.

This, naturally, had a bad impact on his reputation, as did the punitive expedition he initiated in Scotland, which is known in history as the Glencoe Massacre.

During this turning point, the Prince of Orange showed great abilities as a ruler; he distinguished himself by his strong character, which was tempered during the difficult years of republican rule for him. By taking energetic measures, the young ruler managed to stop the advance of French troops and enter into a coalition with Austria, Spain and Brandenburg. With the help of the allies, in 1674 he won a number of victories, and England was taken out of the war.

In 1677 he married. The wife of William III of Orange was his cousin Mary Stuart, who was the daughter of the Duke of York, who later became King James II of England. According to contemporaries, this union was distinguished by extraordinary warmth and goodwill. It was followed, in 1678, by the defeat of the troops of the French king Louis XIV near Saint-Denis, which summed up the war with the French, however, not for long.

Events of the "Glorious Revolution" of 1688

After the English king, who had no legitimate children, died, his place on the throne of England and Scotland was taken by his uncle James II, who was William's father-in-law. He was extremely unpopular both among the people and among the ruling elite. It was believed that his desire was to restore Catholicism in England and conclude an alliance with France.

For some time, Jacob’s opponents had the hope that the king, being an elderly man, would soon leave this world, and his daughter Mary, William’s wife, who was a Protestant, would ascend the English throne. But this hope collapsed when Yakov, who had reached 55 years of age, had a son in 1688, which became the impetus for a coup d'etat.

The main groups, united on the basis of rejection of the policies of James II, agreed to invite the Dutch couple - Mary and William, called upon to replace the “Catholic tyrant”. There were reasons for this. By this time, the Prince of Orange had already visited England several times, gaining popularity there, especially with the Whig party.

Meanwhile, James intensified the persecution of Anglican priests, and he also quarreled with the Tories. Thus, he was practically left without defenders. His ally Louis XIV waged a war for the Palatinate succession. Then the united opposition, consisting of clergy, parliamentarians, townspeople and landowners, secretly appealed to William to lead the coup and accept the crown of England and Scotland.

Victory

In November 1688, William of Orange with an army consisting of 40 thousand infantry and 5 thousand cavalry landed on the English coast. His personal standard bore the inscription that he would support English freedom and the Protestant faith. At the same time, no resistance was offered to Wilhelm. Without any delay, not only the royal army, ministers, but also members of the royal family went over to his side.

One of the decisive factors for the victory was that the coup had previously been supported by King James's closest associate, Baron John Churchill, who commanded the army.

The old king had to flee to France, but this did not mean that he accepted defeat. When the Irish rebelled against England in 1690, James, having received military support from France, made an attempt to regain power. But in the battle of the Boyne, under the personal leadership of William of Orange, the army of Irish Catholics suffered a crushing defeat.

In the January days of 1689, he and his wife Mary were proclaimed by Parliament as monarchs of England and Scotland on a parity basis. It should be noted that the first offer that William received from the Whigs was to become a consort, that is, just the husband of Queen Mary, who was called to reign alone.

However, they expressed a categorical refusal. It so happened that Mary died after five years, and William III of Orange continued to rule the country independently. At the same time, he ruled until the end of his life not only England and Scotland, but also Ireland, while maintaining power in the Netherlands.

What distinguished the years of reign

He then fought on land and sea with Louis XIV, who did not recognize him as king. For this purpose, he created the most powerful army and military personnel. As a result, Louis had no choice but to conclude peace in 1697 and recognize Wilhelm’s legitimacy of power.

But despite this, the French king did not cease to support James II, and after his death in 1701, his son, who declared himself King James III. An interesting fact is that William III of Orange was not only acquainted, but was also on friendly terms with Peter I, the Russian Tsar. The latter, in the period from 1697 to 1698 (Great Embassy), was visiting William - both in England and the Netherlands.

Important facts

Here are some of the most important facts that marked the reign of William III, which include the following:

• The transition to a parliamentary monarchy was facilitated by the adoption of the Bill of Rights and a number of other acts in 1689. They determined the development of the constitutional and legal system in England for the next two centuries.
• The signing of the Act of Toleration, although it applied only to Protestants who did not belong to the Church of England, and did not concern the infringed rights of Catholics.
• Foundation of the Bank of England in 1694 with the support of the king.
• Approval of the Act of Succession in 1701, according to which Catholics and those married to them had no right to lay claim to the English throne.
• Approval in 1702 of the creation of the United East India Company.
• The flourishing of science, literature, navigation.

In the last years of his life, Wilhelm suffered from asthma. He died in 1702 from pneumonia, which was a complication following a fracture of the shoulder. Since the marriage of Mary and William was childless, Mary's sister Anna became the heir to the throne.

WILLIAM III of Orange(English) William, Netherlands Willem van Oranje) (November 4 (14), 1650, The Hague - March 19, 1702, London), King of England and Scotland from 1689, Stadtholder of the Republic of the United Provinces from 1672. The reign of William III of Orange became for England the time of the formation of the principles of parliamentarism.

Stathouder of Holland

The son of William II of Orange and Mary Stuart, daughter of Charles I Stuart, heir to the House of Orange was born after the death of his father. A few years later, the Estates General of the Republic of the United Provinces decided to deny William III the position of Stadtholder, which was traditionally inherited by the Princes of Orange. Later, the position of state leader was completely abolished. The prince grew up under the control of Republicans, who suspected him of trying to seize power in the country.

William of Orange, surrounded by enemies and political rivals since childhood, became a cautious, secretive and withdrawn person. From his youth, he prepared himself for a political career; his education and interests were subordinated to this goal. He spoke eight languages ​​(except Dutch), but showed little interest in art or literature. Despite his strict Calvinist upbringing, the Prince of Orange was rather indifferent to matters of religion, but was a sincere supporter of religious tolerance.

From 1667, Wilhelm received the right to sit on the State Council, thereby beginning his political career. Gradually, his popularity in the country and army grew along with the decline in the prestige of the republican government of Jan de Witt. From the early 1670s, with the growing French threat, William led the army of Holland, and in 1672, at the beginning of the war, he was appointed to the restored post of stadthouder. Under his leadership, the Dutch managed to turn the tide of military operations in favor of France: its troops invaded deep into Dutch territory, and the French fleet dominated the sea. However, the flooding of part of the country, carried out by order of William III, stopped the advance of the French. A coup d'état took place in Holland itself. Jan de Witt was killed and control of the state passed to the Stadthouder. Having gained power, William III managed to find allies in the fight against France (England, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain). As a result of the war that ended in 1678, Holland managed to defend its independence and the integrity of its territory.

Chances of the English throne

The alliance with England was marked by the marriage of William III to his cousin Mary, the eldest daughter of the Duke of York, who later became King James II Stuart. This marriage gave William a chance at the English throne. He began to establish contacts with the English Protestant opposition, gradually organizing a circle of his supporters in Britain, and strengthening the alliance against Louis XIV of Bourbon.

The marriage to Mary Stuart was the result of a political calculation. William III of Orange was not prone to marital fidelity. However, relations between the spouses remained quite warm thanks to Mary's affection for her husband and her complete non-interference in state affairs. William's contacts with the English Protestant opposition aroused suspicion among the Duke of York, who feared that his son-in-law was trying to bypass him to become king of England. These fears were reinforced by the fact that in 1680, at the height of the conflict over the succession to the throne in England, the Prince of Orange offered himself as a “protector” (ruler) under the Catholic king as a guarantee of the preservation of the Protestant faith. After the defeat of the Whig opposition in the early 1680s, William provided its leaders with refuge in Holland. The figure of the Prince of Orange becomes a banner for all those dissatisfied with the policies of James II.

After the birth of a son to James II, who deprived the Prince of Orange of the chance to become king of England legally, the opposition leaders, uniting representatives of different parties in their ranks, turned to William with a letter calling on him to come to England and rid it of the tyranny of James Stuart. In the spring of 1688, Wilhelm decided to act and began preparing a landing force for landing in England.

Glorious Revolution

On October 10, 1688, William issued a declaration in which he promised to come to the aid of the English nation in order to preserve “the Protestant religion, liberty, property and a free parliament.” On October 19, 1688, 600 ships of the Dutch fleet with an army of 15,000 on board set off for England and a few days later landed troops in the southwest of the country. Soldiers and officers of the army of King James II Stuart went over to William's side; he was also supported by uprisings in a number of counties. The English nobles en masse went over to the side of the challenger. In December 1688, William entered London, from where James II managed to escape. Hastily assembled deputies of the "Whig" parliaments of 1679-1681 declared him the temporary ruler of the country and called elections to a new parliament, which was supposed to resolve the issue of state power.

The opposition that brought William to power was not unique: the Tory Protestants who supported him were afraid of violating the principle of legitimacy and abandoning the hereditary monarchy. They proposed transferring power to James II's rightful heir, Mary, with her husband, William III, to become co-emperor. Some Whigs sought to establish a republic. The Prince of Orange was not satisfied with both options, which deprived him of the power that he had counted on. According to a compromise reached by him and both houses of the new parliament, William and Mary were elected king and queen, but William's wife never interfered in the affairs of government, and William III became the de facto ruler.

During the reign of William of Orange, a regime of constitutional monarchy was actually established in England. The new king received power with a number of restrictions formulated in the Bill of Rights adopted by Parliament in 1689: the king could not suspend laws or levy taxes. Parliament met annually from then on: it controlled the allocation of funds to the king and the armed forces. Freedom of parliamentary debate was guaranteed. The king retained the right to convene and dissolve parliament, he was free to elect and dismiss ministers, but ministers were responsible to parliament. According to the Bill of Tolerance adopted in the summer of 1689, some sectarians were exempt from persecution. The Bill of Toleration did not apply to Catholics, although in fact, during the reign of William III, persecution against them ceased.

English king

Despite William's victory, many supporters of the deposed King James II (Jacobites) remained in the British Isles: immediately after the coup, powerful uprisings broke out in Scotland and Ireland, which were suppressed only in 1691. But even later, conspiracies to raise a rebellion or kill William III of Orange did not stop.

The French king Louis XIV of Bourbon supported the deposed James II Stuart and refused to recognize the achievements of the Glorious Revolution. William III of Orange, in turn, initiated the creation of the League of Augsburg, hostile to France. As a result of the War of the Palatinate Succession (1688-1697), William III of Orange achieved international recognition of his rights to the English throne and a number of important concessions from the defeated French.

After the conclusion of the Peace of Ryswick in 1697, William III of Orange made great efforts to reach an agreement with Louis XIV of Bourbon regarding the fate of the Spanish possessions after the death of the childless King Charles II of Habsburg. The French Bourbons and the Austrian Habsburgs were contenders for the Spanish throne. William III of Orange sought to prevent excessive strengthening of either France or Austria. According to an agreement reached in 1701, the French Prince Philip was to receive Spanish territories in Italy, and Spain itself, along with other possessions, was to go to the Austrian Habsburgs. This project caused criticism in the English Parliament, which believed that British interests were not sufficiently taken into account.

After the death of Charles II of Habsburg, the French king abandoned the treaty and laid claim to all Spanish possessions. The Austrian Habsburgs opposed it. In 1701, the War of the Spanish Succession began. However, English society was not ready for war. It was dominated by fears that a large army under the command of the king could become an instrument for a return to an absolutist regime.

However, after Louis XIV of Bourbon granted French merchants privileges in trade with the Spanish colonies in America, thereby infringing on the interests of the Dutch and English, public opinion changed. In addition, in 1701, James II Stuart, who was living in exile, died, and the French king recognized his son as the legitimate king of England - James III. In response, Parliament voted to provide funds to prepare the British army for war. At the height of military preparations, William III of Orange died and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

William III of Orange (1650 - 1702) king of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1689, son of Stadtholder William II and English princess Mary Henrietta, daughter of Charles I Stuart. Born November 14, 1650, a week after his father's death. He was brought up by the great pensioner Jan de Witt, at whose insistence he was removed from public office (1654).

William belonged to the glorious and famous House of Orange in Holland. Holland was a republic, but the highest position of Supreme Stadtholder was inherited from one Prince of Orange to another. In early childhood, Wilhelm was left an orphan. His father, William II, died a week before his son was born. After the death of the old stadtholder, the party of the States General prevailed over the Orange party (the latter sought to found a monarchy in favor of the Orange dynasty) and ruled the country unchallenged for the next 22 years. The supreme power was handed over to the pensioner Jan de Witt, who tried with all his might to strengthen the republican institutions. At his insistence, in 1654 the so-called Act of Elimination was adopted, according to which the Dutch States pledged not to provide William with either military or civil power. But already in 1660, after the restoration of Charles II in England, the Act of Elimination was canceled, and in 1667: the position of stadtholder was also abolished. In 1670, Wilhelm was admitted to the Council of State with the right to vote. From that moment his political career began.

Wilhelm was a frail, thin man, with a high forehead and a nose curved like an eagle's beak. He had a thoughtful, somewhat gloomy look, compressed lips and a cold smile. From childhood until his death, he was a physically weak and sick person - he suffered from shortness of breath and... had a disposition towards consumption. He was constantly plagued by coughing and severe attacks of headache. However, he received from nature strong passions and lively impressionability, which he knew how to cover up with phlegmatic calm. Surrounded since childhood by spies and enemies, he learned to be cautious, secretive and impenetrable. Only in front of a small number of intimate friends could he cast aside his feigned coldness and become kind, hospitable, frank, even cheerful and playful. He was generously endowed with the qualities of a great sovereign and devoted his entire life to one policy. Sciences, arts and literature did not interest him at all. By nature he had the gift of sarcasm. This made his speech strong and bright. He spoke many languages ​​fluently: Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, English and German. By upbringing he was a strict Calvinist, but he always showed enviable religious tolerance.

Such a person could not remain on the sidelines for long. All he lacked was an opportunity to become the head of the republic. Such an opportunity presented itself in 1672, when the war with France began. First, the States General appointed Wilhelm to the position of captain general. Soon, heavy defeats and the uncontrollable invasion of the French produced a revolution in the minds of the Dutch: all hopes were now placed only on the Prince of Orange. Due to unrest that broke out in many cities, Wilhelm was proclaimed Stadtholder in July. In August, the rebellious mob killed Jan Witt and his brother in The Hague. If Wilhelm was not the direct inspirer of these events, he undoubtedly approved of them wholeheartedly. The entire state submitted to the will of the young stadtholder. He found the country already under French rule, and the Dutch army pushed back beyond the line of dams. There was only one last resort left to stop the enemy, and Wilhelm did not hesitate to use it - he ordered the locks to be opened and the sea was released against the invaders. In the fall, the Dutch switched from defense to offensive actions, penetrated all the way to Maastricht, then invaded France and besieged Charlesroi. The Elector of Brunswick and Emperor Leopold entered into an alliance with Holland. The appearance of the imperial army on the Rhine forced Louis XIV to divide his troops. Following this, the Spanish king began the war against France.

In 1673 the French were driven out of the Netherlands. The Anglo-French fleet, after a fierce battle at Cape Gelder, had to retreat from the Dutch shores. These victories brought Wilhelm enormous popularity. He was declared hereditary stadtholder and captain general of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht. The war moved to Spanish Belgium. In the summer of 1674, William, at the head of Spanish and Dutch troops, gave battle to the French commander Prince Condé at Senef, near Deven. After much bloodshed, victory, although incomplete, remained with the French. William abandoned his intention to invade France and retreated. The following year, the French captured the entire Meuse line - they took the fortresses of Guy, Lüttich and Limburg. In 1676, William was unable to save the Spanish fortresses of Bouchain and Condé, besieged by Louis XIV himself. He wanted to take revenge for this by taking Maastricht, but was forced to retreat from it. The famous Dutch admiral Ruyter, who went with the squadron to the Mediterranean Sea, was completely defeated there by Admiral Duquesne and himself fell in battle. In 1677, the French captured Valenciennes, Cambrai and Saint-Omer. William tried to liberate the last city, but was defeated at Moncassel.

In 1678 he made peace in Amsterdam. Louis returned Maastricht to Holland, and to William the Principality of Orange. Such favorable terms of peace were greatly facilitated by William's marriage to Mary, daughter of the Duke of York (the future English king James II). This marriage was based on pure political calculation and, nevertheless, turned out to be successful. True, at first Wilhelm could not boast of marital fidelity. But Mary endured her sorrows with meekness and patience, and gradually acquired the love and affection of her husband. The Amsterdam peace could not last long. In 1681, Louis took possession of Strasbourg. After this, Wilhelm and the Swedish king Charles XI signed an alliance treaty directed against France in The Hague. The Emperor and the Spanish King soon joined this alliance. In 1686 the union was formalized into the League of Outsburg.

At this time, fate provided Wilhelm with the opportunity to significantly expand his power. In June 1688, he received a formal invitation from England, from Tory and Whig leaders, to take the English throne. They wrote to him that nineteen out of twenty Englishmen were thirsty for change and would willingly unite to overthrow James. The authors of the letter promised the prince complete success if he came to England at the head of a detachment of 10 thousand people. Wilhelm immediately began to prepare for the campaign. It was very important to turn public opinion in our direction. Wilhelm took care of this in advance by drawing up a manifesto, every word of which was thought out and had weight. He announced that he was speaking in defense of the English laws, which were constantly being violated by the present king, and in defense of the faith, which was subjected to such obvious oppression. He swore that he had no thoughts of conquest and that his army would be maintained by the strictest discipline. As soon as the country is freed from tyranny, he will send the troops back. Its sole purpose is to convene a freely and legally elected parliament. He promised to submit all public affairs to this parliament for consideration.

On October 19, William and his fleet sailed to England, but a strong storm and contrary wind forced him to return. This delay disheartened his English allies, but the prince himself reacted to the failure with complete calm. On November 1, he went to sea for the second time. This time he was completely successful. On November 5, the ships entered the harbor of Tore, and William's army, without meeting any resistance, landed on the English coast. The population greeted her with joyful cries. London was very worried in anticipation of further events. All the sympathies of the British were on the side of William. King James tried to escape, was detained on the shore by fishermen and moved to Rochester. After his departure, on December 18, William solemnly entered London. He wisely refused the crown, which was offered to him by right of conquest, and left the resolution of all controversial issues to parliament. Since James's only parliament had been elected in violation of the laws, the House of Lords summoned on December 26th those members of the House of Commons who had sat in the last parliament of Charles II. This chamber passed a law granting temporary powers to govern the country to the Prince of Orange and voted him 100 thousand pounds sterling for current expenses. Then elections were called for a new parliament.

It met the following year and opened its sessions on 22 January. On January 28, it was decided to consider Jacob’s flight tantamount to his formal abdication. The question of who should take the vacant throne caused long controversy. Everyone understood that only Wilhelm could really rule the country now, but the Tories really did not want to proclaim him king. They offered to transfer the crown to his wife Maria. To this, William replied that he would never agree to be his wife’s servant, and if the power was not given to him personally, he would immediately leave England. In view of this, the Tories reluctantly agreed that the kingship should be transferred to both Mary and William. However, government power was entrusted to William alone and was supposed to remain with him even if he survived his wife. The crown was then to be inherited by their children, and if the marriage remained fruitless, by Mary's sister, Anna. But before entrusting power to William, Parliament adopted a bill of rights: it clearly set out the basic principles of the government of England. Among other things, it was stated that the king, without the consent of parliament, could not impose or collect any taxes, convene an army in peacetime, in any way interfere with the free work of parliament and interfere with the affairs of justice, which should be carried out freely and independently on the basis of existing laws. On April 11, William and Mary were crowned kings of England.

The great advantage of the new sovereign was his sincere religious tolerance. Already in May, he very favorably received a deputation from the Scottish Parliament, which informed him of the restoration of the Presbyterian Church in the country. William tried only to ensure that persecution of followers of Anglicanism did not begin in Scotland. Soon, on the initiative of the king, the “Act of Tolerance” was adopted. Although the religious tolerance it proclaimed was very limited and freed only a small part of dissidents from persecution, the Act nevertheless became an important step towards freedom of conscience. Catholics did not receive any relief, but more for political than religious reasons. Both in England and Scotland, the positions of supporters of the deposed king (they were called Jacobites) were strong, among whom the fanatical Anglican clergy, who were very suspicious of William’s religious tolerance, played a large role. Already in 1689, powerful Jacobite uprisings took place in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. In the summer of 1690, William crossed at the head of a large army to Ireland. Here, on July 30, a decisive battle took place on the Boyne River, in which the British won a complete victory. Dublin surrendered without a fight. All the rebels' estates were confiscated, many of them were forced to leave their homeland. William was recognized as king in all three parts of the state.

In October, William crossed to the continent to wage war against the French. In February 1691, he went to The Hague, where a large congress of the Allies was taking place. It was decided to field an army of 120,000 against France. But before it could be assembled, Louis XIV, who personally commanded the troops in the Netherlands, took Mons, and Marshal Luxembourg defeated the Dutch army at Leze near Tournai. In June 1692, the French took Namur, and in August the Battle of Stenkerken took place, in which the British and Dutch were again defeated. In July 1693, in a bloody battle near the village of Nerwindem, Wilhelm was defeated for the third time. The Allies lost more than 14 thousand people and all their artillery. However, this victory gave little to the French. Wilhelm quickly recovered. In addition, his opponent, Marshal Luxembourg, soon died. The Duke of Villeroy, who replaced him, was much inferior to him in energy. In 1695, William took Namur. Every year he became more and more dependent on British subsidies. To get them, he was forced to make new concessions to parliament. So a law was passed that the king was obliged to convene parliament every year and that the composition of the House of Commons should be renewed every three years. Censorship was destroyed. Ministers became responsible to parliament rather than to the king.

In 1697, a peace was signed, under the terms of which Louis XIV formally recognized William as the English king. This was an important success, crowning his twenty-five-year struggle against France, but William considered the concluded peace only a respite and wanted to resume hostilities soon. He dreamed of achieving complete victory over Louis, but parliament decisively stood in the way of his plans. In 1699, the deputies decided to reduce the English army to 7 thousand people, and only the English could serve in it (before this, the army was formed mainly from the Dutch). The offended king left for his Dutch residence. The British did not really regret this, but subsequent events showed that William foresaw the future better. Several years of peace passed, and the dispute over the Spanish inheritance began to clearly develop into a new European war against France. An unfortunate fall from a horse and subsequent sudden death prevented the king from taking part in it, but his projects and his hatred of the French were inherited by his successors.