Principles of Russian spelling. Basic principles of spelling Are there other principles of spelling?

CONCLUSION THREE: in order to consciously apply the morphological principle of spelling, it is necessary to have an idea of ​​the grammatical meaning of both the word as a whole and its individual parts in particular.

The morphological principle of Russian orthography is so logical and generally consistent that there are practically no exceptions. (It is estimated that 96% of spellings in Russian texts comply with this principle.) One can easily imagine what a storm of indignation this categorical statement will cause among diligent readers of grammar reference books, where almost every rule is accompanied by a long list of notes and exceptions, shyly cowering in small lines of petite. However, most of these seemingly anomalous spellings are by no means exceptions. They were born as a result of certain restrictions and violations of the morphological principle, which, in turn, also have their own historical pattern and are subject to the logic of the centuries-old development of the very system of our language.
Let's compare two well-known verbs - to get angry and to quarrel. It is easy to notice that both of them are written through double C, although such a spelling corresponds to the morphological composition of the word only in the first case (prefix ras + to quarrel), and in the second (prefix ras + quarrel) - the word, according to the morphological principle, should I would write with a triple C: ra sss orate. However, the absence of such a form is well explained. The fact is that in the Russian language “there are only two degrees of consonant length: consonants can be either long (which is conveyed in writing by writing two letters, cf. Kassa), or short (which is conveyed by writing one letter, cf. Kosa). The third there is no degree of length of consonants, so writing three identical consonants is phonetically meaningless" [Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian language. Graphics and spelling. M., 1976. S. 168-169]. Thus, it turns out that writing only two consonants at the junction of morphemes, although morphologically there should be three such consonants (bath - but bathroom, although the adjective suffix -n- is attached to the root of baths), or one consonant, when according to the morphological principle there should be be written two (crystal - but crystal, Finn - but Finnish, finka, column - but column, manna - but semolina, uniform - but formenka, operetta - but operetta, ton - but five-tonka, antenna - but antenna man), is explained by the action historically established phonetic patterns of the Russian language.
Now it becomes clear the spelling of adjectives such as Nice, Cherepovets, German, which, at first glance, conflicts with the spelling of Constance, which was mentioned above. In fact: by adding the suffix -sk- to the base, according to the morphological principle, we would expect to see the form Nice. However, such a form would reflect the third degree of longitude of consonants, which is absent in the Russian language. Our spelling was free to choose from two options (Niztsky or Nitssky), equally violating the morphological principle for the sake of phonetic regularity. The reasonableness of preferring the first of the possible options is obvious: it at least preserves the spelling of the generating stem of a word, especially a foreign word, intact.
We must not forget that spelling norms developed gradually, preserving the heritage of the past, and therefore they cannot but reflect the linguistic state of previous eras. It is safe to say that the remaining 4% of “anomalous” spellings that do not fall within the scope of the morphological principle of spelling did not arise spontaneously, but under the influence of certain phonetic traditions that have developed over the long centuries of the existence of our language. On the pages of various manuals, textbooks and grammars, the same spelling patterns are often interpreted differently (for example, spellings in root morphemes with alternating vowels like -zor- -zar- are considered by some authors to be subject to the phonetic principle of spelling, while others consider them to be a consequence of the traditional principle ). However, since you and I are currently concerned with practical rather than scholastic problems, let’s forget about terminological accuracy and ask a more specific question: “What, exactly, are these phonetic traditions and what trace did they leave in Russian orthography?”

The principles of Russian spelling are considered very complex, but compared with other European languages, where there are a lot of traditional, conventional spellings, the spelling of the Russian language as a whole is quite logical, you just need to understand what it is based on.

This article talks about the morphological principle of Russian orthography, examples of which are the majority of words in our language.

What is morphology

Understanding what the morphological principle of Russian orthography is, examples of which are given already in the first grade of elementary school, is impossible without the concept of morphology as such. What is morphology? In what areas of knowledge is it customary to talk about it?

The application of the concept of morphology is much wider than the linguistic field, that is, the field of language study. The easiest way to explain what it is is by using the example of biology, where this term actually comes from. Morphology studies the structure of the organism, its components and the role of each part in the life of the organism as a whole. For example, the internal morphology of a person is anatomy.

Thus, morphology in the linguistic sense of the word studies the anatomy of a word, its structure, that is, what parts it consists of, why these parts can be distinguished and why they exist. The “components” of a person are the heart, liver, lungs; flower - petals, pistil, stamens; and the words are prefix, root, suffix and ending. These are the “organs” of the word that are in complex interaction with each other and perform their functions. The topic “Morphemics and word formation” at school is aimed specifically at studying these components of a word, the laws of their connection.

Preliminarily answering the question about the main principle of our spelling, we can say that we write down the constituent parts of a word (morphemes) as elements of writing; this is the morphological principle of Russian spelling. Examples (the simplest ones to begin with): in the word “balls” we write I, as we write it down, we transfer the root “ball” without changes, just as we hear it in the word “ball”.

Are there other principles of spelling?

To understand the essence of the morphological principle of Russian orthography, it needs to be considered against the background of other principles.

Let us clarify what spelling or spelling is. These are the rules that govern the writing of a particular language. The main principle that underlies these rules is not always morphological. Besides this, first of all we need to talk about phonetic and traditional principles.

Recording sounds

For example, you can write down a word as it is heard, that is, write down sounds. We would write the word “oak” like this: “dup”. This principle of writing words (when nothing is important except the sound of the word and the transmission of this sound) is called phonetic. It is followed by children who have just learned to write: they write down what they hear and say. In this case, the uniformity of any prefix, root, suffix or ending may be violated.

Phonetic principle in Russian

There are not many examples of phonetic spelling. It affects, first of all, the rules for writing the prefix (without- (bes-)). In cases where we hear the sound C at its end (before voiceless consonants), we write down exactly this sound (carefree, uncompromising, unscrupulous), and in those cases when we hear Z (before voiced consonants and sonorants), we write it down (uncomplaining, carefree, slacker).

Traditional principle

Another important principle is traditional, also called historical. It lies in the fact that a certain spelling of a word can only be explained by tradition or habit. Once upon a time, a word was pronounced, and therefore written, in a certain way. Time has passed, the language has changed, its sound has changed, but according to tradition the word still continues to be written this way. In Russian, this, for example, concerns the spelling of the well-known “zhi” and “shi”. Once upon a time in the Russian language these combinations were pronounced “softly”, then this pronunciation disappeared, but the writing tradition was preserved. Another example of traditional spelling is the loss of connection between a word and its “test” words. This will be discussed below.

Disadvantages of the traditional way of writing words

In the Russian language, there are quite a lot of such “evidence” of the past, but if you compare, for example, with the English language, it will not seem to be the main one. In the English language, most spellings are explained precisely by tradition, since no reforms have been carried out in it for an extremely long time. That is why English-speaking schoolchildren are forced not so much to understand the rules of spelling words as to memorize the spellings themselves. Only tradition, for example, can explain why in the word “high” only the first two letters are “voiced”, and the next two are written simply “out of habit”, denoting zero sounds in the word.

Widespread use of the traditional principle in the Russian language

As mentioned above, the spelling of the Russian language follows not only the morphological principle, but also the phonetic and traditional one, from which it is quite difficult to escape completely. Most often we come across the traditional or historical principle of Russian spelling when we write down so-called dictionary words. These are words whose spelling can only be explained historically. For example, why do we write “ink” with an E? Or "underwear" with E? The fact is that historically these words are associated with the names of colors - black and white, since at first ink was only black, and linen was only white. Then the connection between these words and those from which they were derived was lost, but we continue to write them that way. There are also words whose origin cannot be explained using modern words, but their spelling is strictly regulated. For example: cow, dog. The same applies to foreign words: their spelling is regulated by words of another language. These and similar words just need to be learned.

Another example is the spelling qi/tsy. Only convention can explain why I is written in the roots of words after T (with the exception of some surnames, for example, Antsyferov, and the words tsyts, chicks, chicken, gypsy), and in the endings - Y. After all, the syllables in both cases are pronounced exactly the same and are subject to no verification.

There is no obvious logic when writing words with traditional spelling, and, you see, they are much harder to learn than “tested” words. After all, it is always easier to remember something that has an obvious explanation.

Why the morphological principle?

The role of the morphological principle in spelling is difficult to overestimate, because it regulates the laws of writing, makes it predictable, eliminates the need to memorize an endless number of words in traditional writing and “unraveling” spellings in phonetic writing. After all, in the end, the correct spelling of words is not a simple whim of linguists. This is what ensures easy understanding of the text, the ability to read any word “on sight”. Children's writing “vykhodnyi myzbabushkay hadili nayolku” makes reading the text difficult and slow. If we imagine that words will be written differently each time, the reader, his speed of reading the text and the quality of his perception will suffer from this, first of all, since all efforts will be aimed at “deciphering” the words.

Perhaps, for a language that is at least rich in word forms (that is, less rich in morphemes) and has fewer word-formation capabilities (the formation of words in the Russian language occurs very easily and freely, according to a variety of models and using a variety of methods), this principle would be suitable , but not for Russian. If we add to this the rich cultural discourse, that is, the complexity and subtlety of thoughts that our language is designed to express, then a primitive phonetic notation is completely unacceptable.

The essence of the morphological principle of the Russian language. Examples

So, having examined the background of the existence of the morphological principle and found out what morphology is, let’s return to its essence. It's very simple. When we write down a word, we choose not sounds or words as recording elements, but parts of words, its constituent elements (prefixes, roots, suffixes, postfixes and inflections). That is, when writing a word, we build it, as if from cubes, not from but from more complex, meaningful formations - morphemes. And “transfer”, each part of the word must be written down unchanged. In the word “gymnastic” after N we write A, as in the word “gymnast”, since we are writing down an entire morpheme - the root “gymnast”. In the word “clouds” we write the first letter O, as in the form “cloud”, since we “transfer” the whole morpheme - the root “clouds”. It cannot be destroyed or modified, because the morphological principle says: write down the whole morpheme, regardless of how it is heard and pronounced. In the word “cloud,” in turn, we write the final O at the ending, as in the word “window” (this is the ending of a neuter noun in the nominative singular).

The problem of following the morphological principle in Russian writing

In Russian, the problem with writing according to morphological principles is that we constantly fall into the traps of our pronunciation. Everything would be simple if all morphemes always sounded the same. However, in speech everything happens completely differently, which is why children, following the phonetic principle, make so many mistakes.

The fact is that sounds in Russian speech are pronounced differently, depending on their position in the word.

Search for standard morphemes

For example, at the end of words we never pronounce a voiced consonant - it is always stunned. This is the articulatory law of the Russian language. It’s hard to imagine, but this doesn’t happen in all languages. The English, on the other hand, are always surprised when Russians try to apply this law and pronounce a voiceless consonant at the end of, say, the English word "dog". In a “stunned” form - “doc” - the word is completely unrecognizable to them.

To find out which letter should be written at the end of the word "steamer", we must pronounce the morpheme "move" in such a way as not to put it in the weak position of the absolute end of the word: "go". From this example of the use of a morpheme it is clear that its standard ends in D.

Another example is vowel sounds. Without stress, we pronounce them “fuzzy”; they sound clearly only under stress. When choosing a letter, we also follow the morphological principle of Russian orthography. Examples: to write the word “walk”, we must “check” the unstressed vowel - “pass”. This word has a clear, standard vowel sound, which means that we write it in a “weak” position - without stress. All of these are spellings that obey the morphological principle of Russian orthography.

We also restore other standards of morphemes, not only root ones, but also others (for example, we always write the prefix “NA” one way and no other way). And it is the standard morpheme, according to the morphological principle of Russian orthography, that we write down as an element when we write a word.

Thus, the morphological principle of Russian orthography presupposes knowledge about the structure of the word, its formation, part-speak, grammatical features (otherwise it will be impossible to restore the standards of suffixes and endings). To write fluently and competently in Russian, you need to have a rich vocabulary - then the search for “standards” of morphemes will take place quickly and automatically. People who read a lot write competently, since a free orientation in the language allows them to easily recognize the connections between words and their forms. It is during reading that the understanding of the morphological principle of Russian orthography develops.

Modern Russian spelling is based on certain principles. To understand the principle of spelling means to see its system and perceive each of its individual rules as part of the system, to understand the spelling rule and each spelling in the interrelations of grammar, etymology, and the history of the language. The theory of Russian spelling specifies morphological, phonetic, traditional principles, as well as differentiating spellings.

The morphological principle of spelling presupposes a uniform, identical spelling of morphemes - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, regardless of phonetic changes in the sounding word that occur during the formation of related words or word forms, that is, regardless of positional alternations and other traditional inconsistencies of writing and pronunciation. Such inconsistencies include: all cases of unstressed vowels in different morphemes - root, prefix, suffix, ending, deafening of voiced consonants and voicing of voiceless consonants before paired deaf and voiced consonants, deafening at the absolute end of a word; orthoepic, traditional pronunciation of many words and combinations.

Checking spellings written according to morphological characteristics includes: firstly: understanding the meaning the word or phrase being tested, without which it is impossible to select a related test word, determine the case form, proper name, etc.; Secondly: analysis morphological composition of the word, the ability to determine the location of the spelling, which is important for choosing and applying the rule; third: phonetic analysis, definitions syllabic composition, stressed and unstressed syllables, highlighting vowels and consonants, understanding weak and strong positions of phonemes, positional alternations and their reasons; fourthly, grammatical analysis words (phrases) - definition of a part of speech, form of a word, for example: a noun, first declension, in d.p., singular, etc.

The leading position of the morphological principle of Russian orthography also determines the methodology of teaching spelling: the latter is based on a conscious, analytical approach to language, on understanding the meanings of words and their combinations, text, grammatical categories and forms, and the phonemic composition of a word.

The following orthographic topics studied in primary grades correspond to the morphological principle: spelling of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants, except for unverified words that are written according to a different principle; spelling of unstressed vowels, voiced and unvoiced consonants in prefixes and suffixes, at the junctions of morphemes (except for certain cases, for example, prefixes with “-z”, which are written according to a different principle; this case is not studied in primary grades); spelling of unstressed vowels in the endings of word forms: in the case endings of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd declension of nouns, in the case endings of adjectives, in the personal endings of verbs of the 1st and 2nd conjugations of the present and future tense; transferring words from line to line, since when transferring, not only syllabic, but also morphemic division of words is observed; to a certain extent, the morphological principle also operates in combined and separate spellings of words, in particular, in distinguishing between prefixes and prepositions, as well as in the use of “Ъ” after prefixes, since the application of the corresponding rules requires a morphemic analysis of words and the determination of their morphological features.

Even such spelling topics as indicating soft consonants in writing, capitalizing names, and double consonants also rely on children's morphological knowledge and skills.

So, the morphological principle is the basic principle of Russian orthography. As mentioned above, its essence lies in the fact that all significant parts of a word (roots, prefixes, suffixes, inflections), repeated in different words and forms, are always written the same way, regardless of how they are pronounced in one position or another.

Thus, based on the morphological principle:

• 1) writing the tested unstressed vowels and voiced final consonants in the roots of words: sa d[sa T], gardens [s dy], s A Dov od, move [ho T];
• 2) spelling of prefixes, excluding prefixes with z-: p O play [piplay], prop at style [missed], approach [z hot].
• 3) spelling of unstressed endings of nouns: in the city [v - proud], above the table [нът - st lom];
• 4) spelling of the suffix -ok: wide [shyrok], low [low];
• 5) spelling of words with unpronounceable consonants: sad [grusnъ], local [m esnyj];
• 6) spelling of assimilated consonants: carry [n i s t i], grass [trafk].
• 7) spelling And after prefixes on a hard consonant and the first root starting with -I- in a compound abbreviated word: pedagogical institute [p dyns t i tu t], disinformation [d zynf rmatsyj].

The unity of the orthographic appearance of morphemes is achieved by the fact that the letter indicates not the pronunciation in one case or another, but the phonemic composition of the morpheme, formed by strong phonemes. Therefore, the basic principle of Russian orthography can also be called phonetic, meaning by this the principle of transmitting the phonemic composition of a morpheme in writing.

Deviations from the basic principle of Russian spelling are phonetic and traditional-historical principles.

Let us next consider the phonetic principle. It is assumed that the sound-letter writing that originally emerged among different peoples was always phonetic: each sound of speech was recorded as it sounds, as the writer hears it. And in modern Russian writing there are many such spellings where there are no discrepancies between sound and writing: “moon”; “chair”, “we”, “cancer” and many others. In most words, along with verifiable or unverifiable spellings, other sounds are designated by letters, essentially on a phonetic basis. Thus, in the word “car” the sound [a] is unstressed and is considered unverifiable, the letter -a- is written according to tradition, but the other letters of the word are written in accordance with the sound. In essence, all these spellings should be called not phonetic, but phonetic-graphic.

Phonetic-graphic spellings do not cause difficulties for writers, so they are usually simply not noticed; but in the primary grades their role is very important. Phonetic-graphic spellings do not contradict the morphological principle of Russian orthography, since they do not lead to unequal spelling of morphemes. But their danger is that they still create in students the illusion of well-being, the illusion that the letter corresponds to the sound, which in fact is not always the case.

Cases such as “table”, “hand”, “lamp” (phonetic spellings) reflect the phonemic composition of these words and do not oppose the morphological principle of spelling. So, the phonetic principle of Russian orthography is that sounds are written in words as they are heard, i.e. the spelling conveys the sound of the word.

Based on the phonetic principle:

• 1) writing prefixes in z-: without-, voz-, them-, from-, once-, through-, through-. So, before a root that begins with a voiceless consonant, the letter s is written, and in other cases z is retained: classless, harmless, inform, drink, fall;
• 2) writing stressed vowels: house, forest, garden;
• 3) spelling of vowels in the prefixes raz-, ras-, roz-, ros-: under stress, O is heard and O is written; in an unstressed position, A is heard and A is written: search - to search, painting - receipt;
• 4) writing Y instead of the initial I at the root after prefixes with a hard consonant: play, but play, search, but find, history, but background;
• 5) writing under the stress O and in the unstressed position E at the endings of nouns, adjectives and adverbs after hissing ones: with soul, but porridge, big, but red, hot, fresh, but melodious, lively;
• 6) writing under stress -ОY, in an unstressed position -Ой in the endings of adjectives, participles and ordinal numbers: big, but new, eighth, but fifth;
• 7) writing Y after C: Lisitsyn, Sinitsyn, Sestritsyn;
• 8) writing b after soft L: salt, coal, strong.

In the system of spelling rules, there are also those that are based on the phonetic principle and are in sharp contradiction with the leading, morphological principle. The contradiction is that morphemes (in this case, prefixes with - -з) are not written uniformly, but depending on pronunciation, reflecting positional alternation. The prefixes from-, is-, time-, race-, vz-, vs-, through-, through- and others do not obey the morphological principle. According to the rule, these prefixes are written with the letter Z before vowels or voiced consonants, and in other cases - with the letter C: “unnamed, but “infinite.” It is easy to notice that the spelling Z- (S- in this example corresponds to the pronunciation, i.e., is subject to the phonetic principle.

Rules based on the phonetic principle and contradicting the morphological one cause difficulties for students, destroy their ideas about the spelling system that have just begun to form, and contradict the general principle of checking vowels and consonants in weak positions.

Since the rules based on the phonetic principle contradict the understanding of the Russian spelling system that is developing in children and are generally difficult to master, they are not studied in the elementary school course. But younger schoolchildren encounter words containing such spellings in written speech and write them, learning them on a practical basis through memorization.

It can be emphasized that cases similar to the spelling of prefixes with -з- are few: other principles of spelling generally do not contradict, but, on the contrary, support the morphological principle of Prussian spelling. This is the third principle - traditional(historical). According to this principle, many words are written according to tradition, without checking the rules.

Words that are not verified by the rules are very numerous: in the text typical of the written speech of primary schoolchildren, their number reaches 20% (many of these words will later, in high school, become verifiable for students). These are mostly words borrowed from other languages. Many of them entered the Russian language relatively recently: “bath” - German, “suitcase” - Persian, others in ancient times: “watermelon”, “balyk”, “tulup” - Turkic. and etc.

Many spellings considered traditional can in fact be verified based on the source language: "cardboard" - from Latin; “suit” - from French, etc.

Sometimes a spelling considered traditional can be verified based on knowledge of the history of the etymology of words and historical changes in the phonetics of the Russian language: “rooster” - from the Old Russian “peti”, “peas” - contains the full vowel -oro-, in which there is no -a- .

Based on the traditional historical principle:

• 1) writing G in gender, singular. adjectives, participles, impersonal pronouns, masculine and neuter ordinal numbers: young (pronounced - in), fifth (pronounced - in). The spelling G has been preserved from those distant eras when these forms were pronounced with [g].;
• 2) according to tradition, the letter I is written after the hissing Zh and Sh. These consonants were soft in the Old Russian language, so after them it was natural to write I, E, Yo, Yu, Ya, as one hears, but by the 13th century. these consonants have hardened, but the writing And continues according to tradition, although the consonants are pronounced firmly and Y is heard, not I: to live, to sew;
• 3) according to tradition, b is written at the endings of verbs of the present and future tense in 2 l. units: reading, playing;
• 4) according to tradition, it is written, but there is no explanation for the spelling with unverified unstressed vowels: potter, blockhead, ship, dog, station;
• 5) suffixes -enk, -tel, -ochk, -echk, -enn, -ovat, -evat.

So, traditional historical writings are those writings that do not depend on either morphemes or pronunciations, and the writing according to tradition is preserved.

Within the framework of the traditional principle, which generally does not contradict the general rules of Russian writing and the leading principle of Russian orthography - morphological, there are several cases that contradict the general system.

The traditional spelling of the combinations ZHI, SHI, with the letter “i”, CHA, ShCHA, with the letter “a”, CHU, SHU with the letter “u” contradicts the general rule of Russian orthography, according to which after hard consonants one should write not “and”, but “y”, after soft ones - not “u”, “a”, but “yu”, “ya”.

In the elementary grades, the spelling of these combinations is learned by heart without any explanation, and, of course, cannot but cause damage to the formation of the concept of a spelling system in the minds of students.

The morphological principle is contradicted by the traditional spelling of individual words: “kalach” (according to the morphological principle, one should write “kolach”).

If morphological spellings are checked and learned on the basis of phonetic, word-formation and grammatical analysis of words and their combinations, then traditional spellings are mainly based on memorization, in the order of the so-called dictionary-spelling work. Memorization in the elementary grades plays an important role; it cannot be neglected; on the contrary, it is necessary to develop a deep system of motivations and game techniques that make it easier for children to memorize words with difficult spellings.

With the development of phonology, with the introduction of the concept of phoneme into scientific use, a new phonemic principle was proposed, which some linguists define as the basic principle of Russian orthography. But, as mentioned above, the leading role in checking spellings belongs to the morphological approach: you need to know whether the spelling is in the root, suffix, prefix or ending. And without a morphological approach, the phonemic method of verification is blind and is applicable only in the simplest, obvious cases such as “water” - “water” or “meadow” - “meadows”.

It is impossible to check the spelling of words [p shot], [long], [shyt] and many other spellings without resorting to morphological analysis. The morphological principle explains all these cases; in other words, the morphological principle is wider than the phonemic one; it covers a significantly larger number of spellings than the phonetic one. The authors of most textbooks for universities consider the morphological and phonemic principles in close connection, but however not equal, since the phonetic principle is part of the morphological one.

Spelling of roots is included in the Unified State Examination in the Russian language for grade 11 (task 8).

Algorithm for checking the spelling of roots

1. Check if the root is alternating. If it is, check according to the rule.
2. If the root is not alternating, try to find a test word. If a test word is found, the letter is tested.
3. If the test word was not found, the letter is untestable.

Spelling of alternating roots

The spelling of alternating roots can depend on many factors: stress, the presence of a suffix, the meaning of the word, etc.

Alternating vowels O and A in the root

Alternating vowels E and I in the root

The alternation of vowels E and I in roots depends on the presence of the suffix -A- after the root: if there is a suffix, then I is written, otherwise E is written.

Spelling of checked vowels/consonants in the root

If a vowel or consonant is a verifiable letter in the root, then there is a word with the same root in which the vowel is under stress and the consonant is before the vowel.

• Sche...matic – test word schema => schematic
• To cheer up - the test word is cheerfulness => to cheer up
• Happy – test word happiness => happy
• Fragile - test word frail => fragile
• Ice hole - test word cut through => ice hole
• Dangerous – test word dangerous => dangerous

Spelling of unchecked vowels/consonants in the root

Unverifiable vowels and root consonants should be checked in a dictionary and memorized the correct spelling.

Spelling- this is a set of rules establishing: 1) uniform spelling of significant parts of a word: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings; 2) separate and continuous spelling of words and their parts; 3) use of capital letters; 4) rules for word hyphenation.

I. The rules establishing the writing of significant parts of a word are based mainly on the morphological principle: significant parts of a word are written uniformly, regardless of changes in the pronunciation of vowels and consonants in speech. In this case, vowels are written as they are pronounced under stress, and consonants as they are pronounced before vowels or l, m, n, r, for example: 1) pain- sick, disease(root pain- spelled the same, although pronounced differently); 2) at the bottom- down, low, inferior(root bottom- spelled the same, although pronounced differently).

In many cases, spellings that do or do not match the pronunciation are unverifiable. However, they are also conveyed in writing uniformly, for example: 1) dog- dog, Sobakevich; 2) adventure- adventurer, adventurous; 3) ladle- ladle, oil- oil.

Unverifiable spellings are called traditional. They need to be memorized.

In some cases, there are deviations from the morphological principle, when the uniform spelling of significant parts of a word is violated. Such deviations are associated primarily with the preservation of ancient alternations of sounds in writing, for example: believe- put it down, dawn- dawn, unlock- unlock.

The morphological principle is convenient: uniform transmission of significant parts makes it easier to remember the outline -

learning the word, speeds up the process of reading and understanding what is written.

In our orthography there are also significant parts of words based on the phonetic principle of writing, reflecting changes in the pronunciation of sounds, for example:

1) cure- eradicate, silent- disenfranchised;

2) sledges(sled) - camber; 3) Name- nameless; 4) climb- stairs, shine- shine. There are few such spellings, most of them refer to the designation of prefixes on h.

The error-free application in practice of many spelling rules is directly related to the writer’s ability to quickly navigate the composition of a word.

II- Separate writing of words is based on the principle: write all words of the Russian language, independent and functional, separately, for example: Victor did not know that his friend’s father and mother were sick.

During the life of a language, prepositions and particles sometimes merge with the words they refer to, forming new words, for example: at first, hard-boiled, bad etc. Spelling often lags behind the processes occurring in the language, for example, combinations skin-tight And by oneself are written separately, although they are adverbs (cf. one by one).

They are used in Russian spelling and spellings with a hyphen (dash) - primarily in adverbs and complex words, for example: read in French, don't hope in vain, raincoat, scientific and technical.

III. The use of capital letters is associated with the emphasis of proper names, for example: Nikolai Alekseevich Ivanov was vacationing on the Black Sea coast near Yalta.

IV. The rules of hyphenation are based on dividing words into syllables, taking into account the composition of the word: teacher, honor, endless, pain.

If you are in doubt about the correct spelling of words, you should turn to spelling dictionaries, the most complete of which is the “Spelling Dictionary” of the Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences (all editions since 1974).

For many years, the “Spelling Dictionary” by D. N. Ushakov and S. E. Kryuchkov has been published especially for students. Published in 1995, “School spelling

Graphic Dictionary of the Russian Language" M. T. Baranova answers two questions: how the word is spelled and why it is spelled that way.

The “School Grammar and Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language” by B. T. Panov and A. V. Tekuchev (the second edition of the dictionary was published in 1985) indicates not only the spelling of words, but in many cases their division into morphemes, lexical meaning, features pronunciation.

102. Read and indicate: a) verifiable morphological
writing prefixes and roots; b) unverifiable morphological
Chinese (traditional) spellings of roots; c) writing prefixes
and roots that deviate from the morphological principle. Words by
Write out the last two (“b” and “c”) groups in two columns.

I. Planted, ran, low, river, steppe, confess, gatehouse, dog, ram, asbestos, apparatus, station, stick up, break, exclaim, painting, receipt, tan, tanned, tangent, touch, request.

P. Mediocre, helpless, smell, clayey, patronage, cabin, crimson, jump, bend, slippery, asphalt, grow, thicket, collect, will collect, corridor, gallery, collective.

103. Write it off. Explain (orally) what the separation is based on
or spelling words together.

Shelter from the rain under (worth) weight, value (worth) weight in gold; rush (into) the distance, peer (into) the distance of the steppe; move (in) deep into the desert, move (in) deep; return home (on) time, get sick (during) the holidays; enter (in) a dense mass of clouds, approach (in) close to the shore; pour coffee (in) a hand mill, process parts (in) manually.

104. Write it off. Explain (orally) what the usage is based on.
capital letters.

I. Observe the (N, c) northern night on the coast of (N, northern sea; cross the (K, k) Caucasian mountains, lush (K, Caucasian vegetation; send a spaceship from (3, h) earth to its satellite - (L , l)unu, admire the light of (L, l)una, fight for peace on (3, h) earth; go down the marble (D, d) palace stairs, visit St. Petersburg on (D, d) palace square; K, k) tanned goods, live in (K, k) tanned lane.

P. The exploits of (I, i)lya (M, m)uromets, the fearlessness of the Gorky (S, s)okol, the aphorisms of (K, k)ozma (P, p)rutkov, the nobility of the (Ch, ch)atskys, good-heartedness (M, m)anilovs, high-society (L, l)ovellas, take on the role of (M, m)mentor, the whims of (M, m) philanthropists.

105. Read and indicate which letters are missing. Check it in a spelling dictionary and copy it down.

Id..al, embodiment, liberal, charming, reflection, perspective, authentic, denounce, proclamation, propagandist, witness, tradition, citadel.

§ 17. USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

The use of capital letters is associated with syntactic and semantic conditions, with the emphasis of proper names, as well as with stylistic grounds.

I. The first word of each sentence that begins the text or comes after a period, ellipsis, question mark or exclamation mark is written with a capital letter.

Note. The first word of each line of poetic speech is written with a capital letter, for example:

...Onegin, my good friend,

Born on the banks of the Neva,

Where might you have been born?

Or shone, my reader...(P.)

P. The following are written with a capital letter:

1) first names, patronymics, last names of people, pseudonyms, animal names, for example: Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy, Antosha Chekhonte.

Note. The names and surnames of people that are used in a common noun, but retain a connection with the bearer of their own name, are also written with a capital letter, for example: Under certain conditions, the Bazarovs develop into great historical figures.(D.P.) (i.e., from people like the main character of I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons”). However, when a proper name completely transforms into a common noun, a lowercase letter is written, for example: By the face of this Hercules(i.e. strongman) complacency, timidity, embarrassment spreads(Zlatovratsky);

2) geographical and administrative names, for example: Volga, Lake Ladoga, Atlantic Ocean, Ural Mountains, Kostroma city, Vologda region, Russian Federation, France, Nevsky Prospekt, Victory Square;

3) names of periodicals, literary works, factories, factories, etc., and these names are enclosed in quotation marks, for example: newspaper “Izvestia”, magazine “New World”, poem “At the top of my voice”, joint venture “Zarya”;

4) possessive adjectives with suffixes -oe-, -ev-, -in-, For example: Ivanovo childhood, Flooring doll, Further dictionary.

In phraseological combinations in which the direct connection of the possessive adjective with the proper noun from which it is derived is lost, a lowercase letter is used, for example: Aesopian language(allegorical expression of thoughts).

Note. Possessive adjectives with suffix -sk-, formed from proper names are written with a lowercase letter, for example: Lermontov's prose, Levitan's landscapes. Such adjectives are written with a capital letter only when they are part of names that have the meaning of “the name, memory of someone,” for example: Lomonosov readings, Nobel Prize;

5) all words, except official ones, in the names of the highest legislative and governmental institutions of the country, for example: Federation Council, Federal Assembly, Security Council of the Russian Federation, and Constitution of the Russian Federation, Armed Forces of the Russian Federation;

6) all words except words order And degree in the full names of the orders, for example: Order of Glory III degree.

Note. In the names of insignia highlighted in quotation marks, the first word and the proper names included in the name are capitalized, for example: medal "In memory of the 850th anniversary of Moscow"(But: Order of the Badge of Honor);

7) all words in the names of officials and honorary
titles, for example: President of Russian Federation,
Chairman of the State Duma of the Russian Federation

tion, Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, Hero of Russia;

8) the first word in the names of holidays and significant dates, major historical events, for example: New Year, International Women's Day, Knowledge Day, Peter's era;

9) the first word in the names of educational institutions, cultural institutions, enterprises and organizations, for example: Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, State Public Historical Library, Park of Culture and Leisure, Drama Theater on Malaya Bronnaya, First Moscow Watch Factory.

III. Abbreviated names are written in capital letters, consisting of the first letters of those words that are included in the names of states, state associations, government bodies, parties, movements, institutions, enterprises and other organizations, for example: CIS, USA, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Internal Affairs, Moscow State University, ZIL, UN. There are no periods between capital letters.

106. Read and explain the use of capital letters.

Griboedov's comedy "Woe from Wit", constellation Ursa Major, Kostroma region, Nizhny Novgorod, St. Petersburg - the city on the Neva, Battle of Borodino, participants in the Great Patriotic War, Teacher's Day, Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts.

107. Copy by inserting missing capitals or lowercases
letters. Explain their use.

1) We lived in perfect harmony. I didn’t want another (M, m)mentor. (P.) 2) Are the representatives of Russian society all (F, f) Amusovs, (M, m) Olchalins, (3, h) Agorets, (X, h) Lestakovs, (T, t) Ugoukhovskys and the like? (White)

3) The folded (K, k) Crimean ridge stretches along the (South, southern) coast of the peninsula in three ridges. (Mic.)

4) I dreamed of writing a book about the creative work of (M, Moscow (X, art theater. (Stanisl.))

108. Expand the brackets, replacing lowercase letters where necessary
you are in capitals; use quotation marks if necessary.

(k) red (p) square, (f) Senin’s lyrics, (d) Alev dictionary, (d) Alev dictionary, (w) osse (e) nthuziastov, (p) square

(c) uprising, (b) Abiy (i)r, dahlia (c) Vetlana, (p) prospect (v) Ernadsky, (b) Rodinskaya (p) anorama, (m) Alakhov (k) ur-gan, ( d) civil war, (d) day of (p) printing, (k) Ulikovskaya battle, (k) urgan of (s) lava, order of (h)nak (p) account, (p) Ermsky (d) dramatic (t) theater, (m)Oskovsky (t)theater of the (u)nogo (z)teller, (p)board of the (m)Oskovsky (o)branch of the (in)Serossian (t)theatrical (o)society, the night before (r)Christmas.

§ 18. USE b TO DESIGNATE THE SOFTNESS OF CONSONANTS IN WRITING

1. There is a letter at the end of the word b written after any soft consonant, except sibilants, for example: horse (cf.: horse), frost (cf.: frost), lantern("cf.: hit).

2. There is a letter in the middle of the word b is written:

a) after soft l, coming before any vowel
(hard or soft), for example: sick, herring,
flatter, boy, sawyer;

b) after a soft consonant preceding a hard one
consonant, for example: Kuzma, less, fight;

c) between two soft consonants only in that case
tea, if when the word changes, the second consonant becomes
hard, and the first remains soft (compare with item “b”), for example:
in a request (request), Kuzmich (Kuzma), for a fight (struggle).

3. Letter b not written inside combinations chk, chn, nch, nsch, rsch, rch: river, river, nurse, mason, lamplighter, spoiled.

4. Letter b can't pee between two soft ones l: illusion.

109. Write it off. Explain (orally) the spelling of ь.

1) The happy(?) but boring(?) time was approaching, November(?) was already in the yard. (P.) 2) Nyan(?)ka Var(?)ka, a girl(?) about thirteen years old, rocks the cradle(?). (Ch.) 3) He spends his time nannying(?) with small children. (Dal) 4) The rain(?) came in gusts, turning into showers(?), then into drizzle(?). (Are.) 5) Hoarfrost(?) - snow-like sediment similar to frost. (T.S.) 6) The state(?)ti laugh, and the brand(?) glasses chat. (L.) 7) As a reward for anyone, you carry (?) a horse. (P.) 8) On the table lay a map of the Volga, all covered with blue and red symbols. (Versh.) 9) Here is the smallest (?) shack

ka is decorated with the most cunning cut(?) combat. (Prishv.) 10) Do not refuse me my request(?)be. (P.) 11) She sat down at the desk. (P.) 12) The next day(?) I saw Zinaida only with a chalk(?) lump. (T.) 13) The racers(?) started early(?) in the morning. (Gas.) 14) I don’t tolerate servility, don’t lie (?), don’t humiliate yourself! (N.)

110. Change the words according to the patterns. Emphasize those nearby
soft consonants in the words you formed. With words each
In each group, make two sentences.

I. 1) Twig- branch, tassel, bone, news, cane. 2) pestle- pestle, bow, umbrella, bridge, screw.

3) Get sick- disease, live, execute, flatter, be sad.
P. Worms-worm, nails, milk mushrooms, areas, shipyards, by
news, honors, news, thickets, songs, fables, lazy people.

111. Write it off. Explain (orally) the spelling of ь.

1) The vet(?)vi lilacs closed the weight(?) house. 2) Clusters of white flowers stood out against the dark greenery. 3) At the meeting they talked about controlling (?) pests in gardens and vegetable gardens.

4) Fulfill my request(?)bu: carry(?)mi pis(?)ma and put them in
Mailbox. 5) They were in a matchbox(?)
fishing hooks. 6) The boys (?) were digging worms (?)
for fishing. 7) Sel(?)d(?) walked in shoals. 8) Master
taught the student how to cut(?)by braid(?)ti. 9) The plant requires ra
workers of various specialties(?)noses(?): cut(?)boxes, be-
tone(?) masons, masons(?), electric welders(?), stove(?)ni-
ki, tin(?) boxes. 10) On the desk(?) stood
comfortable table(?) lamp. 11) The women(?) were singing
dog(?)nu.

§ 19. USE b TO NOTE GRAMMATICAL FORMS

In some cases the letter b serves to indicate the grammatical form of words.

Use after sizzling

After the sizzling b used:

a) in feminine singular nouns, for example: speech, silence, rye(cf. masculine noun: ball, hut, watchman);

b) in the imperative mood of verbs: appoint, from
cut, eat, appoint, cut, eat;

c) in the indefinite form of verbs: take care, cut, be
talk, cut hair;

d) in the 2nd person singular verbs are present
th and future tense, for example: carry, throw, into
you rush, you rush, you rush, you fiddle;

e) in adverbs (except can't stand it, get married) for example
measures: unbearably, completely;

e) in particles you see, you see, just, you see.

Note. In the middle of a word b sometimes used as a separator, for example: rye.

Usebin some cases And verb forms

The letter ь is used:

a) in the instrumental case of the plural neko
some nouns and numerals (for example, children
mi, people, four), as well as in other cases of numbers
literary eight: eight(genus, dat., etc.), eight And
eight(tv.p.);

b) in an indefinite form: carry- mess around,
shave- to shave;

c) in the imperative mood: prepare, prepare
those, get ready.

112. Change these words according to the patterns. Write it off.

1. Nights- night, breams, alkalis, bricks, trumpeters, little things, drawings, dugouts, things, reeds, swords, speeches.

2. They glue- you glue, sawing, blowing, burning, spreading, melting; they fight, they whisper, they hope, they build, they splash, they worry, they practice.

113. In these phrases the verbs are imperfect,
in the imperative mood, replace the verb
mi perfective in the form of the same mood. Write it off.

Schedule a collection- schedule a collection; throw the ball, meet you at the station, get up on time, correct mistakes, notify about your arrival, be consoled quickly, don’t be offended by a remark, take textbooks, don’t forget about consultation, sit down at the table, cut bread, lie down to rest.

114. Write down these phrases. Explain the spelling orally b.

Get carried away(?)by playing with children(?)mi, make a breach(?) in the enemy defense, come late at night(?)th, talk with intelligent people(?)mi, feel the fal(?)sh(?), open door(?) wide open(?), return just(?) at dawn, time after midnight(?), blush like red(?), attract(?) everyone's attention.

§ 20. COMPOSITION OF THE WORD. USE OF SINGLE-ROOT WORDS

The composition of the words in the Russian language is different. Most Russian words in phrases and sentences change, that is, they are declined or conjugated. When declension and conjugation of a word, the stem and ending are primarily distinguished in its composition, for example:

1) Glubok\aya\river\a] -t deep\uy\river\u] - deep^ysch^ekshch]

2) Cyl\it\ log[o] -drank)rrevn[a].

3) Tell[y] comrade[y] - tell\eat\comrade[y] - tell\ut\comrade\am\.

The basis reflects the lexical meaning of the word. The ending, forming word forms, serves to connect words and expresses their grammatical meanings (for example, number, case, person).

Sometimes the ending is not expressed by sounds (in writing - by letters). Such endings are called zero, for example: Tsrud\ | deep)| . At the words pond And deep endings are zero. They are revealed when compared with other forms of these words, for example: ponds\, deep th]. Wed. Also: Let's go to pond[y]. River deep[A\. Lake deep].

Unchangeable words (for example, adverbs) consist of one stem and do not have an ending, for example:

1) Comfortable. located (conveniently- adverb). Wed: room comfortable](comfortable- a short adjective in the singular form of the neuter gender).

2) I'm going down (down)- adverb). Wed: I'll put my backpack away ,bottom,\ | cabinet (bottom- a noun with a preposition, in the singular accusative case).

The stem of a word can only consist of a root (for example, rects a], npyd\Z\* but may also include a prefix, suffix, several prefixes and suffixes (see the table for examples).

Words that contain the same root are called related or cognate.