Entente and Triple Alliance - history of creation, goals, composition. Entente

Ant? Anta - a military-political bloc of Russia, England and France, created as a counterweight to the “Triple Alliance” (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy); formed mainly in 1904-1907 and completed the delimitation of the great powers on the eve of the First World War.

The term originated in 1904, originally to refer to the Anglo-French alliance.

The formation of the Entente was preceded by the conclusion of a Russian-French alliance in 1891-1893 in response to the creation of the Triple Alliance (1882) led by Germany. At the beginning of the 20th century, the aggravation of British-German contradictions, which pushed into the background the clashes between Great Britain and France and Russia, prompted British politicians to abandon the policy of “brilliant isolation,” which involved playing on the contradictions between the continental powers and refusing to join blocs. In 1904, a British-French agreement was signed, followed by a Russo-British agreement (1907). These treaties actually formalized the creation of the Entente. Russia and France were allies bound by mutual military obligations defined by the military convention of 1892 and subsequent decisions of the general staffs of both states. The British government, despite contacts between the British and French general staffs and naval commands established respectively in 1906 and 1912, did not accept assume certain military obligations. The formation of the Entente softened the differences between its participants, but did not eliminate them. These differences were revealed more than once (for example, contradictions between Great Britain and Russia in Persia, friction between Entente members in the Balkans and Turkey), which Germany took advantage of in an attempt to tear Russia away from the Entente. However, strategic calculations, the financial dependence of the tsarist government on France and the aggressive plans of Germany doomed these attempts to failure. In turn, the Entente countries, preparing for war with Germany, took steps to separate Italy and Austria-Hungary from the Triple Alliance.

Although Italy formally remained part of the Triple Alliance before the outbreak of the First World War, the ties of the Entente countries with it strengthened, and in May 1915 Italy went over to the Entente side. After the outbreak of the First World War, in September 1914 in London, an agreement was signed between Great Britain, France and Russia on the non-conclusion of a separate peace, replacing the allied military treaty. In October 1915, Japan joined this agreement, which in August 1914 declared war on Germany. During the war, new states gradually joined the Entente. By the end of the war, the states of the anti-German coalition (not counting Russia, which withdrew from the war after the October Revolution) included Great Britain, France, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, Greece, Italy, China, Cuba, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru , Portugal, Romania, San Domingo, San Marino, Serbia, Siam, USA, Uruguay, Montenegro, Hijaz, Ecuador, Japan. The main participants of the Entente - Great Britain, France and Russia, from the first days of the war entered into secret negotiations on the goals of the war. The British-French-Russian agreement (1915) provided for the transfer of the Black Sea straits to Russia, the London Treaty (1915) between the Entente and Italy determined the territorial acquisitions of Italy at the expense of Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Albania. The Sykes-Picot Treaty (1916) divided Turkey's Asian possessions between Great Britain, France and Russia. After the October Revolution, the Entente organized an armed intervention against Soviet Russia - on December 23, 1917, Great Britain and France signed a corresponding agreement. In March 1918, the Entente intervention began, but campaigns against Soviet Russia ended in failure. The goals that the Entente set for itself were achieved after the defeat of Germany in the First World War, but the strategic alliance between the leading Entente countries - Great Britain and France - remained in the following decades.

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More on topic 11. Formation of the Entente:

1. Development of the problem of reorganization of Austria-Hungary in the Entente countries during the First World War
2. The problem of establishing borders on the territory of the former Austria-Hungary (November 1918 - March 1919)
3. The problem of methods for maintaining control of the peace process by the great powers (August 1919 - January 1920)

Since the collective security system ceased to exist, each country began to look for an ally. France was the first to begin this search. After the Franco-Prussian War, on its eastern border there were now not several dozen German monarchies independent from each other, but a single empire, surpassing France in population and economic power. In addition, France was forced to transfer its territories to the enemy: the province of Alsace and a third of the province of Lorraine. This gave Germany a strategic advantage: it had access to the plain of Northern France in its hands. From this moment, realizing the impossibility of a one-on-one fight, France itself begins an active search for allies to balance the power of the new Germany.

German Chancellor Bismarck, who did more than anyone else to unify the country, saw the main goal of his diplomacy in preventing an alliance of France with other great powers. He understood how vulnerable the position of the German Empire was, which, unlike France, was surrounded on three sides by great powers: Austria-Hungary, Russia and France itself. An alliance of the latter with any of the remaining two exposed Germany to the prospect of a war on two fronts, which Bismarck considered a direct road to defeat.

Triple Alliance

A way out of this situation was found along the lines of rapprochement with Austria-Hungary. The latter, in turn, entering into increasingly intense rivalry with Russia in the Balkans, needed an ally.

Consolidating this rapprochement, Germany and Austria-Hungary signed a treaty in 1879, under which they pledged to support each other in the event of an attack by the Russian Empire. Italy joined the alliance of these states, which was looking for support in the conflict with France over control of North Africa.

In 1882 the Triple Alliance was created. Germany and Italy assumed obligations of mutual assistance in the event of an attack by France, and Italy, in addition, promised Austria-Hungary neutrality in the event of a conflict with Russia. Bismarck also hoped that Russia would refrain from conflict with Germany due to close economic, dynastic and traditional political ties with it and the reluctance of the Russian emperor to enter into an alliance with republican, democratic France.

In 1904, they settled all mutual claims that arose in connection with the colonial division of the world and established “cordial agreement” among themselves. In French it sounds “Entente Cordial”, hence the Russian name for this alliance - Entente. Russia signed a military convention with France back in 1893. In 1907, she settled all her differences with England and actually joined the Entente.

Features of new unions

This is how unexpected and strange alliances developed. France and England have been enemies since the Hundred Years' War, Russia and France - since the revolution of 1789. The Entente united the two most democratic states in Europe - England and France - with autocratic Russia.

Two traditional allies of Russia - Austria and Germany - found themselves in the camp of its enemies. The alliance of Italy with its yesterday's oppressor and the main enemy of the unification - Austria-Hungary, on whose territory the Italian population also remained, also looked strange. The Austrian Habsburgs and the Prussian Hohenzollerns, who had been vying for control of Germany for centuries, found themselves in the same coalition, while blood relatives, cousins, William II on the one hand, Nicholas II and King Edward VII of Great Britain, his wife, were in opposing alliances.

Thus, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, two opposing coalitions emerged in Europe - the Triple Alliance and the Entente. The rivalry between them was accompanied by an arms race.

The creation of coalitions in itself was not unusual in European politics. Let us remember, for example, that the largest wars of the 18th century - the Northern and the Seven Years - were fought by coalitions, as were the wars against Napoleonic France in the 19th century.

The Entente is a military-political bloc consisting of England, France and Russia, otherwise it was called the “Triple Entente”. It mainly took shape in the period from 1904 to 1907, and the demarcation of the great powers was completed before the First World War. The emergence of this term dates back to 1904 and was originally intended to denote an alliance between the British and the French, in which the expression “cordial agreement” was used, dedicated to the memory of the Anglo-French alliance, which was created for a short time in the 1840s, and had the same Name. The Entente was created as a reaction to the established Triple Alliance and the strengthening of Germany as a whole, and also as an attempt to prevent its hegemony on the continent, initially from the Russian side (France initially took an anti-German position), and from the British state. In the face of the threat posed by German hegemony, it was forced to abandon the traditional policy of “brilliant isolation” and switch to the traditional policy of joining a bloc against the strongest power on the continent. The most important incentive for this choice of England was the existence of the German naval program, as well as the colonial claims of Germany.

And in this state, on his part, such a turn of events was perceived as “encirclement,” which served as an incentive for military preparations that were perceived as purely defensive. After Germany was defeated, the Supreme Council of the Entente practically performed the functions of a “world government” and was involved in arranging the post-war order. Although, due to the failure of the Entente’s policy in Turkey and Russia, the limits of its power were revealed, undermined by the internal contradictions that existed between the victorious powers. The Entente as a political "world government" ceased to exist after the League of Nations was formed, and militarily this was influenced by the emergence of a new, post-war system of alliances.

The Entente was initially interested in the Bolshevik revolution in Russia, in particular, in its catastrophic military prospects (Russia's exit from the war, its subsequent transformation into a German raw material appendage); Subsequently, the overthrow of the Bolshevik government became the principle of “defense of civilization.” The main powers participating in the intervention were, of course, pursuing pragmatic political and economic interests. 1917 December 23 - England and France sign an agreement regarding issues of joint intervention in the Russian state.

A well-known example of confrontation between political blocs in the international arena is the clash of large countries during the 1900s.

During the period of tension before the events of the First World War, powerful players on the world stage banded together to dictate their policies and have an advantage in deciding foreign policy issues. In response, an alliance was created, which was supposed to become a counterweight in these events.

Thus begins the history of confrontation, the basis of which was the Entente and the Triple Alliance. Another name is Antanta or Entente (translated as “heartfelt agreement”).

Countries participating in the Triple Alliance

The international military bloc, which was initially formed to strengthen hegemony, included the following list of countries (see table):

1. Germany- played a key role in the formation of the alliance, concluding the first military agreement.
2. Austria-Hungary- the second participant to join the German Empire.
3. Italy– joined the union last.

A little later, after the events of World War I, Italy was withdrawn from the bloc, but nevertheless the coalition did not disintegrate, but on the contrary, it additionally included the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.

Creation of the Triple Alliance

The history of the Triple Alliance begins with an allied agreement between the German Empire and Austria-Hungary - these events took place in the Austrian city of Vienna in 1879.

The main point of the agreement was the obligation to enter into hostilities on the side of an ally if aggression was carried out by the Russian Empire.

In addition, the pact stipulated the requirement that a neutral party be observed if the allies were attacked by someone other than Russia.

At the same time, Germany was worried about the growing position of France in the international arena. Therefore, Otto von Bismarck was looking for ways that would push France into isolation.

Favorable conditions arose in 1882, when the Austrian Habsburgs were involved in negotiations, which played a decisive role in Italy's decision.

The secret alliance between Italy and the Germany-Austria-Hungary bloc consisted of providing military support in the event of military aggression by France, as well as maintaining neutrality in the event of an attack on one of the countries participating in the coalition.

Goals of the Triple Alliance in World War I

The main goal of the Triple Alliance on the eve of the war was the creation of a military-political coalition that, in its power, would oppose the alliance of the Russian Empire, Great Britain and France (opponents).

However, the participating countries also pursued their own goals:

1. The German Empire, due to its rapidly growing economy, needed as many resources as possible and, as a result, more colonies. The Germans also had claims to redistribute spheres of influence in the world, aimed at creating German hegemony.
2. The goals of Austria-Hungary were to establish control over the Balkan Peninsula. For the most part, the matter was carried out for the sake of capturing Serbia and some other Slavic countries.
3. The Italian side had territorial claims on Tunisia, and also sought to secure its access to the Mediterranean Sea, bringing it under its absolute control.

Entente - who was part of it and how it was formed

After the formation of the Triple Alliance, the distribution of forces in the international arena changed dramatically and led to a clash of colonial interests between England and the German Empire.

Expansion in the Middle East and Africa prompted Britain to become more active, and they began negotiations for a military agreement with the Russian Empire and France.

The definition of the Entente began in 1904, when France and Great Britain entered into a pact, according to which all colonial claims on the African issue were transferred under its protectorate.

At the same time, obligations for military support were confirmed only between France and the Russian Empire, while England in every possible way avoided such confirmation.

The emergence of this military-political bloc made it possible to level out differences between the major powers and make them more capable of resisting the aggression of the Triple Alliance.

Russia's accession to the Entente

The events that marked the beginning of the Russian Empire's involvement in the Entente bloc occurred in 1892.

It was then that a powerful military agreement was concluded with France, according to which, in the event of any aggression, the ally country would withdraw all available armed forces for mutual assistance.

At the same time, by 1906, tensions between Russia and Japan were growing, caused by negotiations on the Portsmouth Treaty. This could provoke Russia's loss of some Far Eastern territories.

Understanding these facts, Foreign Minister Izvolsky set a course for rapprochement with Great Britain. This was a favorable move in history, since England and Japan were allies, and the agreement could resolve mutual claims.

The success of Russian diplomacy was the signing of the Russo-Japanese Agreement in 1907, according to which all territorial issues were settled. This significantly influenced the acceleration of negotiations with England - the date August 31, 1907 marked the conclusion of the Russian-English agreement.

This fact was the final one, after which Russia finally joined the Entente.

The final formation of the Entente

The final events that completed the formation of the Entente bloc were the signing of mutual agreements between England and France to resolve colonial issues in Africa.

This included the following documents:

1. The territories of Egypt and Morocco were divided.
2. The borders of England and France in Africa were clearly separated. Newfoundland completely went to Britain, France received part of the new territories in Africa.
3. Settlement of the Madagascar issue.

These documents formed a bloc of alliances between the Russian Empire, Great Britain and France.

Entente plans in the First World War

The main goal of the Entente on the eve of the First World War (1915) was to suppress Germany's military superiority, which was planned to be implemented from several sides. This is, first of all, a war on two fronts with Russia and France, as well as a complete naval blockade by England.

At the same time, the members of the agreement had a personal interest:

1. England had claims to the rapidly and confidently growing German economy, the rate of production of which had a suppressive effect on the English economy. In addition, Britain saw the German Empire as a military threat to its sovereignty.
2. France sought to regain the territories of Alsace and Lorraine lost during the Franco-Prussian conflict. These lands were also important to the economy due to the abundance of resources.
3. Tsarist Russia pursued its goals of spreading influence over the important economic zone of the Mediterranean and settling territorial claims on a number of Polish lands and territories in the Balkans.

The results of the confrontation between the Entente and the Triple Alliance

The results of the confrontation following the First World War were the complete defeat of the Triple Alliance- Italy was lost, and the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires, which were part of the union, disintegrated. The system was destroyed in Germany, where a republic reigned.

For the Russian Empire, participation in the Entente and the First World War ended in civil clashes and revolution, which led to the collapse of the empire.

Questions 42-43.The formation of the Triple Alliance and the Entente and their military-political confrontation at the beginning of the 20th century.

Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 greatly changed international relations in Europe and determined the rise of Germany as one of the leading players on the international stage. After this war, Germany set out to establish its hegemony in Europe. She considered France to be the only obstacle. Ruling circles believed that France would never come to terms with the loss of Alsace and Lorraine and would always strive for revenge. Bismarck hoped to strike a second blow at France in order to reduce it to the level of a minor power. Bismarck begins to isolate France, to make sure that it has as few sympathetic countries as possible that would come to its aid. Bismarck pursues an active policy to create an Anti-French Alliance, choosing Russia and Austria-Hungary. For Russia, there was an interest in getting rid of the consequences of the Crimean War (as a result, Russia was prohibited from having a Black Sea Fleet). In the 1870s. Russia's relations with Great Britain regarding problems in the East are becoming more complicated. Austria-Hungary sought to gain German support in order to dominate the Balkans.

IN 1873 is created Alliance of Three Emperors(If one of the states is attacked, the other two will help it in the war).

Bismarck began putting pressure on France - in 1975 he provoked Franco-German alarm 1975(in France, a number of priests promoted revenge on E. and Lot. Bismarck accused the French authorities that this was their initiative, and began to prepare a war against the French). Alexander 2 specially arrived in Berlin to personally tell Wilhelm that he did not support Germany in its war with France. This was one of the first blows to S3imp. It was also undermined by contradictions between Russia and Austria-Hungary over rivalry in the Balkans. And in 1879, a customs war broke out between Russia and Germany.

Formation of the Triple Alliance began with registration in 1879 Austro-German Confederation. This rapprochement was facilitated by the deterioration of Russian-German relations (Russia stood up for France during the war of alarm in 1875. And in 1879, after the introduction in Germany of high duties on grain imported from Russia, the latter followed up with retaliatory measures, which led to Russian- German customs war).

On October 7, 1879, in Vienna, the German Ambassador Reis and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary Andrássy signed a secret treaty of alliance. This treaty obliged each of its participants to assist the other with all military forces in the event of an attack by Russia and not to enter into separate negotiations with it. If the attack was carried out by some other party, then neutrality. However, if the attacking power was supported by Russia, then the parties must act together and with all their might. The alliance was concluded for 5 years, but was subsequently extended until the World War.

The next stage in the creation of a military-political bloc of Central European powers was joining Austro-German Union of Italy (1882). The latter was prompted to sign the treaty by the deterioration of relations with France (in 1881, France established a protectorate over Tunisia, which was perceived negatively in Italy).

Despite the claims against Austria-Hungary, Italy concluded the so-called Triple Alliance in 1882. According to it, the parties pledged not to take part in any alliances or agreements directed against one of the parties to the treaty; Germany and Austria-Hungary provided Italy with military support in the event of a war with France. Italy assumed similar obligations in the event of a French attack on Germany. Austria-Hungary in this case remained neutral until Russia entered the war. The parties adhered to neutrality in the event of a war with anyone other than France, and the parties provided support to each other in the event of an attack by two or more great powers.

Formation of the Entente began after the Franco-Russian rapprochement. In 1893, the parties signed a secret military convention.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. Relations between France and England began to improve. England needed continental troops in case of war with Germany. France just had a large land army and acute conflict relations with Germany. It was impossible to count on Russia yet, because... Britain supported Japan in the Russo-Japanese War.

France felt the need for a strong ally. Russia's positions were weakened by the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. and the beginning of the revolution.

On April 8, 1904, an agreement on basic colonial issues was signed between the governments of Britain and France, known in history as the Anglo-French Entente. According to it, the spheres of influence of the countries in Siam were established (England - the western part, France - the eastern part). The most important was the declaration on Egypt and Morocco. In fact, the colonial rule of England in Egypt and France in Morocco was recognized.

The 1904 treaty did not contain the terms of a military alliance, but still the Anglo-French Entente was directed against Germany.

By 1907, an Anglo-Russian rapprochement had begun. Russia's turn towards Great Britain is largely due to the deterioration of the former's relations with Germany. Germany's construction of the Baghdad Railway posed a direct threat to Russia. Petersburg was concerned about the German-Turkish rapprochement. The growth of hostility was largely facilitated by the Russian-German trade agreement of 1904, imposed on Russia under pressure from Germany. Russian industry began to be unable to withstand the competition of German goods. Russia wanted to raise its international prestige through rapprochement with England, and also counted on loans from the British side.

The British government viewed Russia as a double ally - in a future war with Germany and in the suppression of the revolutionary and national liberation movement in the East (in 1908, Russia and Britain acted together against the revolution in Persia).

In 1907, the Anglo-Russian agreement was signed. In the presence of the Franco-Russian (1893) and Anglo-French treaties (1904), the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 completed the creation of a military-political bloc directed against the coalition of powers led by Germany.

Military-political confrontation between the countries of the Entente and the Triple Alliance in the last thirdXIX - beginningXXV.

Germany, together with Austria-Hungary, intensified its expansion in the Balkans and the Middle East, invading the sphere of interests of Russia and Great Britain. IN 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed long occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina(In 1908 - the Young Turk revolution in Turkey, during which the liberation movement of the Slavic peoples begins. Having decided to occupy B. and Hertz., A-B buys a concession from Turkey for the construction of a railway to the city of Thessaloniki - Exit to the Aegean Sea. Then she officially declares annexation and Russia protests. However, weakened after the Russo-Japanese war, Russia cannot do anything and suffers a diplomatic defeat) and proposed that Bulgaria and Romania be divided on three Serbia. Serbia was preparing to repel any invasion, counting on Russian support. But Russia was not ready for a war with Austria-Hungary, on whose side Germany stood, which in 1909 directly pledged to help the Habsburg Empire if Russia intervened in Austro-Serbian relations. Under pressure from Germany, Russia recognized Austria-Hungary's rule over Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Russia tried in vain to weaken the rapprochement between Germany and Austria-Hungary, and Germany was unable to tear Russia away from the Entente.

The strengthening of the alliance with Austria-Hungary and the relative weakening of Russia allowed Germany to increase pressure on France. 1st Moroccan crisis 1905-1906 In 1905, Germany proposed the division of Morocco. She stated that she would reclaim the port of Agadir. Wilhelm 2 goes on a trip to Palestine (Germany is the protector of Muslim peoples) - part of the population of Morocco is imbued with sympathy for Germany and demands the convening of an international conference on the Muslim issue. In 1906 in Spain in Alziserass A conference was held, the result of which was that no one supported Germany in its claims.

Taking advantage of the French invasion of Morocco in 1911 (suppression of unrest in the city of Fess), Germany sent its warship to Agadir (" Panther jump") and declared its intention to seize part of Morocco. The conflict could lead to war. But Germany’s claims were resolutely opposed by Great Britain, which did not want the appearance of German colonies near Gibraltar. Germany then did not dare to clash with the Entente and had to be content with part of the Congo, which it ceded to it France in exchange for recognition of its power over Morocco.But since then it has become obvious that war between the European powers could break out even over the colonies, not to mention more serious mutual claims.

Amid rising tensions, another attempt by Britain to negotiate an agreement with Germany under which each would agree not to engage in an unprovoked attack on the other failed. German leaders proposed a different formula: each side would pledge to remain neutral if the other became involved in the war. This would mean the destruction of the Entente, which Great Britain did not dare to do. In reality, mutual neutrality between Germany and Great Britain was out of the question, as economic competition became fiercer and the arms race intensified. The Anglo-German negotiations of 1912 gave hope for the settlement of only minor contradictions over spheres of influence, but created the illusion among the German ruling circles that British neutrality in the European war was not excluded.

The further weakening of the Ottoman Empire, long considered the “sick man of Europe,” led to the emergence of a bloc of Balkan states directed against it ("Little Entente"). It was created on the initiative of Serbia, supported by Russia and France. In the spring of 1912, the Serbian-Bulgarian and Greek-Bulgarian treaties were signed (followed by Montenegro), in solidarity with which Montenegro acted, which was the first to begin military operations against the Ottoman Empire on October 9. The armed forces of the Balkan states quickly defeated the Turkish army ( First Balkan War 1912-1913). In October 1912, these 4 states began a war with the Turks, with Bulgaria making a major contribution. In November 1912, Bulgarian. the army reached Constantinople. In November, Türkiye turned to the great powers for mediation.

The successes of the Balkan bloc alarmed Austria-Hungary and Germany, who feared the strengthening of Serbia, especially the accession of Albania to it. Both powers were ready to confront Serbia with force. This would cause a clash with Russia and the entire Entente, which was confirmed by Great Britain. Europe was on the brink of war. To avoid it, a meeting of the ambassadors of the six great powers was held in London. At it, the Entente patronized the Balkan states, and Germany and Austria-Hungary patronized the Ottoman Empire, but they still managed to agree that Albania would become autonomous under the supreme authority of the Sultan and Serbian troops from she will be taken out.

After long and difficult negotiations, only May 30, 1913 signed between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan states peace treaty. The Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its European territory, Albania and the Aegean Islands.

However, conflict broke out between the victors over these territories. The Montenegrin prince besieged Scutari, not wanting to cede it to Albania. And Serbia and Greece, with the support of Romania, which demanded compensation from Bulgaria for its neutrality, sought from Bulgaria part of the territories it inherited. Russian diplomacy tried in vain to prevent a new conflict. Encouraged by Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria turned against its former allies. broke out Second Balkan War 1913. Austro - Hungary prepared to support Bulgaria with armed force. Only warnings from Germany, who considered the moment unfortunate, and Italy kept her from speaking. Bulgaria, against which the Ottoman Empire also fought, was defeated.

Once again, the ambassadors of the great powers in London took up Balkan affairs, trying to win over the Balkan states to the side of their blocs and backing up their arguments with loans. On August 18, 1913, a peace treaty was signed between the participants in the Second Balkan War, according to which Serbia and Greece received a significant part of Macedonia, Southern Dobruja went to Romania, and part of Eastern Thrace went to the Ottoman Empire.

The Balkan Wars led to a regrouping of forces. The Austro-German bloc strengthened its influence on the Ottoman Empire, secured by sending a German military mission there, and attracted Bulgaria to its side. And the Entente retained predominant influence in Serbia, Montenegro and Greece and attracted Romania to its side. The Balkans, the center of intertwined interests and conflicts, have become Europe's powder keg.