Nicholas II. The beginning of the reign of Nicholas II Reform S.Yu

Beginning of reign ü 1894 - accession to the throne ü 1894 - marriage to Alexandra Fedorovna ü 1895 - delimitation of spheres of influence with England ü 1895 - first official speech; dispelled hopes for constitutional reforms "from above" ü May 14 (26), 1896 - coronation on Khodynka field

Economy ü 1897 - population census ü 1897 - monetary reform, establishment of the gold standard of the ruble ü Rapid growth in agricultural (2%) and industrial (4.5-5%) production ü Expansion of the coal mining industry ü Expansion of the railway network (70 thousand km by 1913)

Labor policy: three lines ü Repressions ü Creation of labor legislation ü "Guardian" policy: creation of legal workers' organizations under the supervision of the police - initiator S. V. Zubatov

Labor policy ü 1897 - law on the limitation of working hours, 11.5 o'clock on weekdays and 10 o'clock on Saturday and pre-holiday days. ü 1900 - cancellation of exile to Siberia ü 1903 - introduction of insurance for accidents at work ü 1906 - creation of trade unions ü 1912 - compulsory insurance of workers against illness and accidents

Peasant question ü Punitive actions in response to peasant unrest ü 1902 - special meeting on the needs of the agricultural industry

The alignment of forces in the Far East ü 1896 - the Russian-Chinese agreement on a military alliance against Japan, the construction of a railway to Vladivostok through Manchuria (CER) ü 1898 - the provision of Russia for 25 years on lease of the ports of Port Arthur and Dalny ü The growing influence of Russia in the Far East clashed with the interests of Japan, which also laid claim to Manchuria.

Causes of the war ü The clash of interests between Russia and Japan in the Far East, the aggravation of economic (construction of the CER, lease of Port Arthur) and political (Russian influence in Manchuria) contradictions. ü The idea of ​​distracting the population of Russia with a “small victorious war” from internal problems (Ministry of Internal Affairs Plehve)

The beginning of the war ü January 26/February 6, 1904 - severance of diplomatic relations with Japan MFA - Lamzdorf) ü January 27 - attack by the Japanese fleet of the Russian squadron of Port Arthur ü January 28 - Nicholas II declared war on Japan

The main events of the Russo-Japanese war on land ü 27. 01 -20. 121904 - defense of Port Arthur ü 11 -21. 08. 1904 - Liaodong military operation, the defeat of Russian troops ü 6 -25. 02. 1905 - the defeat of Russian troops in Manchuria

The main events of the Russian-Japanese war at sea ü 27.01.1904 - the attack of the Japanese squadron on the Russian fleet, the death of the cruiser "Varyag" ü 31.02.1904 - the death of the commander of the Russian fleet S. O. Makarov ü 14 - May 15, 1905 - the naval battle of Tsushima (Vice Admiral Rozhestvensky) - the almost complete destruction of the Russian fleet

23. 08. 1905 - Peace of Portsmouth ü Korea is recognized as a sphere of influence of Japan ü Japan receives possession of South Sakhalin ü Japan receives the right to fish along the Russian coast ü Russia leases the Liaodong Peninsula and Port Arthur to Japan ü Russia cedes the southern part to Japan Sakhalin

Causes of the defeat ü Failure of the top state and military leadership ü Underdevelopment of Russia’s weapons and navy ü Remoteness of the battlefields from the center of the country, lack of means of communication ü Unpreparedness of society for war, unresolved internal problems

Causes ü Confrontation between the autocracy and society ü Unresolved agrarian issue: lack of land of peasants, preservation of redemption payments ü Deterioration of the position of workers ü Crisis of the imperial system of relations between the center and the provinces ü Defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War

The nature and goals of the revolution ü Bourgeois democratic, nationwide in composition ü Overthrow of the autocracy, establishment of a democratic republic ü Introduction of democratic freedoms ü Elimination of landownership ü Shortening the working day to 8 hours, recognition of the rights of workers to strike and trade unions

Periodization ü Stage I: January-September 1905 The beginning and development of the revolution in an ascending line. ü II stage: October-December 1905. The highest rise of the revolution. ü Stage III: January 1906 - June 1907 The decline and retreat of the revolution.

Stage I ü January 9, 1905 - "Bloody Sunday" ü February 18, 1905 - rescript of Nicholas II with the promise of reforms ü May-June 1905 - workers' strike in Ivanovo. Voznesensk ü June 1905 - uprising on the battleship "Potemkin" ü August 6, 1905 - decree of Nicholas II on the establishment of the State Duma (the so-called "Bulyginskaya")

Stage II ü Formation of political parties (cadets, Octobrists, Black Hundreds) ü September-October 1905 - All-Russian political strike ü October 17, 1905 - the tsar's manifesto "on improving the state order" ü October-November 1905 - Uprising in the fleet ( Sevastopol, Kronstadt)

Stage II ü November-December 1905 - the formation of Soviets of workers and deputies in Moscow and St. Petersburg ü December 11, 1905 - the publication of a new law on elections to the First State Duma ü December 15-18, 1905 - December armed uprising in Moscow, suppressed by troops

Stage III, revolutionary uprisings ü June 1906 - mass peasant unrest ü July 1906 - uprising of soldiers and sailors of the Baltic Fleet in Sveaborg, Kronstadt and Revel ü 12. 08. 1906 - attempt on Stolypin - led to the creation of military courts (August 19, 1906)

Stage III, parliamentary struggle ü 26. 03 and 20. 041906 - elections to the First State Duma ü 27. 04. 1906 - the beginning of the work of the First State Duma ü 5. 05. 1906 - Duma address to the emperor demanding the introduction of constitutional government ü 10. 07. 1906 - protest of deputies against the dissolution of the First State Duma ü 20. 02 -2. 06. 1907 - II State Duma ü 3. 06. 1907 - dissolution of the new state law

Stage III, actions of the authorities ü 26.02.1906 - transformation of the State Council into the upper house of parliament ü 23.04.1906 - publication of the "basic laws of the Russian Empire" that determined the powers of the State Council and the State Duma ü 4.03.1906 - permission to create trade unions ü November 1906 - the beginning of the state reform of Stolypin

Results of the revolution ü Creation of the State Duma, reform of the State Council, approval of the "Basic Laws of the Russian Empire" - restriction of autocracy ü Proclamation of freedom of speech, permission to form trade unions, partial political amnesty ü Stolypin reform, final abolition of ransom payments for peasants ü But: society was not satisfied with the results

Elections to the State Duma ü 4 curia: agricultural, city, peasant, workers ü Not direct ü In 3 stages

I State Duma ü April 24 - July 8, 1906 ü Chairman - Muromtsev (Cadet) ü Political preponderance of the Kader party ü The problem of creating a ministry responsible to the State Duma ü Attempts to resolve the agrarian issue

II State Duma ü February 20 - June 2, 1907 ü Chairman - Golovin (Cadet) ü In the center - the agrarian question ü Refusal to support the Stolypin reforms ü Dissolution by decree of the tsar

Third June Monarchy (1907-1914) ü June 3, 1907 - dissolution of the II State Duma, introduction of a new suffrage without parliamentary approval ü Combination of tendencies to suppress revolutionary uprisings and reforms to expand the social support of the autocracy ü Maneuvering the tsar between the State Duma and the nobility

III State Duma ü November 1, 1907 - June 9, 1912 ü Chairmen: Khomyakov (Octobrist), Guchkov (Octobrist), Rodzianko (Octobrist) ü Agrarian legislation on the Stolypin reform was approved ü Labor legislation was adopted ü Finland's autonomy was limited

IV State Duma ü November 15, 1912 – October 6, 1917 ü Chairpersons 6 Rodzianko (Octobrist) ü Support for Russia's participation in World War I ü Creation of the "Progressive Bloc" in the Duma (1915) and its confrontation with the tsar and government

Stolypin agrarian reform, 1906 -1911 ü The goal is to create a class of landowners as a social support of the autocracy and an opponent of revolutionary movements ü Permission for the exit of peasants from the community ü Transfer of state lands to the Peasant Bank ü Organization of resettlement in Western Siberia ü Construction of rural schools, expansion of public education

Results of the reform ü Acceleration of the process of stratification of the peasantry, destruction of the peasant community ü Growth of agricultural production, increase in grain exports ü Part of the peasants did not accept the reform ü The murder of Stolypin in September 1911 - the incompleteness of reforms

Between Revolution and War ü 1907 Treaty with Great Britain delimiting spheres of influence in China, Afghanistan and Persia ü 1911 Potstdam Agreement with Germany ü 1912 Mongolia under Russian protectorate ü Rapprochement with France and Great Britain

Transformations in the military sphere ü The reason is the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War ü Centralization of the highest military command ü The term of active service was shortened ü The officers were rejuvenated ü New programs, charters, instructions ü New educational institutions

Aggravation of the socio-political situation ü Opposition in the IV State Duma, the Progressive Bloc - for organizing a government responsible to the Duma ü Falling authority of the authorities due to G. E. Rasputin ü Loss of people's trust by the monarchical government ü Idea of ​​a coup in the Duma, attempts to unite parties

The last Russian emperor comes to the throne. In 1888, near the Borki station (45 km from Kharkov), the imperial train crashed. Alexander III held the roof of the car on his shoulders and saved his wife and children, but received several bruises, one of which, apparently, touched the kidneys. The development of kidney disease contributed to the use of alcohol. October 20, 1894 Alexander III died. His eldest son succeeded to the throne Nicholas II (1868-1918).

Nikolai Alexandrovich at that time was 26 years old. Its education was led by K. P. Pobedonostsev. Thin, short, the new emperor looked younger than his years, behaved modestly, even insecurely, and seemed to many to have not matured enough. He has not yet been married. His chosen one, Princess Alice of Hesse, did not like her parents, and the wedding was postponed for a long time. Now, after accession, it was necessary to first arrange a wedding, and then a coronation. In November 1894, the young emperor married a Hessian princess, who took the Orthodox name Alexandra Feodorovna.

On Nicholas II at the beginning of his reign, great hopes were placed. Willingly or unwittingly, he soon dispelled them. On January 17, 1895, a solemn reception of deputations from the nobility, zemstvos, cities and Cossacks took place. Nikolai, visibly agitated, made a short speech, peeping into a piece of paper hidden in his cap. The key moment of this speech made many people wince. " I know,” the tsar said, “that lately in some Zemstvo meetings the voices of people carried away by senseless dreams about the participation of Zemstvo representatives in matters of internal administration have been heard; let everyone know that I ... will guard the beginning of autocracy as firmly and unswervingly as my unforgettable parent guarded it».

The cheat sheet written by Pobedonostsev spoke of " baseless dreams". But Nikolai either misspoke, or someone advised him "enhance" this place. Words about " meaningless dreams”, which sounded extremely insulting, immediately and forever pushed the liberals away from Nikolai.

In May 1896, celebrations were held in Moscow on the occasion of the coronation. Folk festivities with the distribution of "royal gifts"(saika, a piece of sausage, a gingerbread and a mug). The field was not leveled, and the kiosks were placed too closely. On May 18, with a huge crowd of people, there was a terrible stampede, 1389 people died. This made an unpleasant impression on the king, but the celebrations continued. In the evening of the same day, Nikolai and Alexandra were at a ball in the Kremlin and danced a polonaise. The next day there was a dinner at the German ambassador's. When the tsar was passing through Moscow, shouts were heard from the crowd: Come to the funeral!», « Find the culprits!»

Several years passed, and once the imperial couple was present at the launching of the battleship " Alexander III". A gust of wind tore off a heavy flagpole, which fell into the audience, killing several people. Since then, the people have developed a belief that the young queen brings misfortune.

Nicholas II at such moments he always remained imperturbably calm. Many spoke of his indifference. But with the same stoic calm he met the fatal end of his reign, his death and the death of his loved ones. The mysterious soul of the last Russian tsar is not easy to understand.

It is clear, however, that Nicholas II was not created for state affairs, although he treated them conscientiously. It was created for the family, for home comfort. His affections were limited only to his family, only to his wife and children did he give love and warmth. Outside the family, the world around him seemed hostile to him. From there, he always expected encroachments on himself, on his loved ones, their peace, peace and property. He considered the autocratic power, which he received from his father and which he considered it his duty to pass on to his son, to be an inalienable, bequeathed property of his family from above.

Nicholas II was just as conservative as Alexander III, although he did not inherit a strong and firm character from his father. Those who, with the accession of the young emperor, connected their hopes for a turn in the direction of long overdue reforms, were very mistaken.

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PERIODS OF THE XX CENTURY

1964, October - 1985, March - "stagnation" / Brezhnev, "five-year plan for a magnificent funeral", Andropov + Chernenko

Your bonus will be THREE essays for periods of the early twentieth century that are not included in the third block, you can see an example of one of them with a complete analogous analysis below:

EXAMPLE OF AN ESSAY FROM THE EXPERT! EASIER TO REMEMBER!

This period of the country's history followed the period of "counter-reforms" of Alexander III the Peacemaker. In October 1894, after his death, the last Russian Emperor Nicholas II, nicknamed the "Bloody" by the people, and now canonized, ascended the throne.

From the new emperor and his government, the liberal public expected concessions and reforms, but already in his first public speech, the Tsar announced "meaningless dreams about the participation of representatives of the zemstvos in matters of internal self-government." Indeed, in this period he continues the conservative policy of his father, in 1903 he signed the Manifesto, which provides for the preservation of the peasant community in an unchanged form. After that, a supporter of decisive bourgeois reforms S.Yu. Witte, Minister of Finance of the Empire.

Witte also strongly opposed the aggressive "Great Asian Program" of Nicholas II and the outbreak of war with Japan. He believed that the country should limit itself to economic expansion in the Far East, for this purpose he signed the secret Moscow Treaty with China, which allowed Russia to build a branch of the Trans-Siberian Railway through the territory of Northern China - Manchuria (CER). In 1902, he personally visited the Far East, inspecting Russian communications, fortifications, and came to the conclusion that the country was not ready for war with Japan. In 1903, he defended this opinion at the Big Conference on the Far East, however, most of Nikolai's advisers (including V.K. Plehve) were for the war. They hoped with its help to destroy the competition of Japan in the development of the wealth of the region (Korea, Manchuria).

As a result of this policy, in 1904, Russia, being attacked by the Japanese fleet, would go to war with Japan. And in 1905 he will lose it, recognizing this at the signing of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty, transferring South Sakhalin to Japan. The reaction of the people will be the First Russian Revolution.

Criteria analysis of this essay.

So why is this a MAXIMUM 11 POINT essay? We will analyze according to the criteria

CRITERION 1 (Indication of events (phenomena, processes).

Two events (phenomena, processes) are correctly indicated - 2 points!

1) In October 1894, after his death, the last Russian Emperor Nicholas II came to the throne;

2) ... in 1904, Russia, being attacked by the Japanese fleet, will go to war with Japan.

CRITERION 2 (Historical figures and their role in the indicated events (phenomena, processes) of a given period of history)

Two historical personalities are correctly named, the role of each of these personalities is correctly characterized with an indication of their specific actions that largely influenced the course and (or) result of the named events (phenomena, processes) of the considered period of Russian history - 2 points!

1) King<Николай II>declared "meaningless dreams about the participation of representatives of the zemstvos in matters of internal self-government." Indeed, in this period he continues the conservative policy of his father, in 1903 he signed the Manifesto, which provides for the preservation of the peasant community in an unchanged form.

2) Witte ... signed the secret Moscow Treaty with China, which allowed Russia to build a branch of the Trans-Siberian Railway through the territory of Northern China - Manchuria (CER). In 1902, he personally visited the Far East, inspecting Russian communications, fortifications, and came to the conclusion that the country was not ready for war with Japan. In 1903, he defended this opinion at the Great Conference on the Affairs of the Far East ...

CRITERION 3 (Cause and effect relationships)

Two causal relationships are correctly indicated, characterizing the causes of the occurrence of events (phenomena, processes) that occurred in the given period - 2 points!

1) ... in 1903 he signed the Manifesto, providing for the preservation of the peasant community unchanged. After that, a supporter of decisive bourgeois reforms S.Yu. Witte, Minister of Finance of the Empire.

2) however, most of Nikolai's advisers (including V.K. Plehve) were for the war. They hoped with its help to destroy the competition of Japan in the development of the wealth of the region (Korea, Manchuria). As a result of this policy, in 1904, Russia, being attacked by the Japanese fleet, would go to war with Japan.

CRITERION 4 (Assessment of events (phenomena, processes) of a given period for the further history of Russia)

An assessment is made of the influence of events (phenomena, processes) of this period on the further history of Russia based on historical facts and (or) opinions of historians - 1 point!

As a result of this policy, in 1904, Russia, being attacked by the Japanese fleet, would go to war with Japan. And in 1905 he will lose it, recognizing this at the signing of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty, transferring South Sakhalin to Japan. The reaction of the people will be the First Russian Revolution.

CRITERION 5 (Use of historical terminology)

Historical terminology is correctly used in the presentation - 1 point!

Emperor, liberal public, reforms, "Great Asian Program", conservative politics, peasant community...

CRITERION 6 (Presence of factual errors)

There are no factual errors in the historical essay - 2 points!

CRITERION 7 (Form of presentation)

The answer is presented in the form of a historical essay (consistent, coherent presentation of the material) - 1 point!

So, before you is an essay (task 25) for a maximum of 11 points, and now you know how to get similar ones throughout the block of the twentieth century, just learn them (this is real) and get your best score on the exam.

Nicholas II: man and politician

Personality Nicholas II still attracts close attention and causes heated debate among people of various beliefs and views. Contemporaries and historians, his admirers and irreconcilable enemies wrote about him. As a rule, these works give mutually exclusive assessments of the personality and activities of the last Russian monarch, which are almost always biased by the ideological and political predilections of the authors of these works. Let's try and say a few words about him.

Rice. 1. Coronation menu ()

Nicholas was born in May 1868., and since the baby became the first child in the family of the emperor Alexander III and his consort the Danish Princess Maria Feodorovna, then according to "The Act of Succession to the Throne" (1797), it was he who became the heir to the Russian throne. Therefore, starting at the age of six, the young Tsarevich began his studies, and for fifteen years he was trained in the amount of extended gymnasium, university and military courses. His educators and teachers were outstanding representatives of Russian national science and culture: the teacher of law and the basics of theology was the Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev and professor HER. Zamyslovsky, the course of economics and finance was read by the academician THEIR. Bunge, historical disciplines were led by academicians CM. Solovyov And IN. Klyuchevsky, geography and statistics were read by the Chief of the General Staff, General N.N. obruchev, course of the Academy of the General Staff - prominent military theorists M.I. Dragomirov, G.A. Leer And A.F. Rediger.

Rice. 2. Nikolai Alexandrovich ()

According to many contemporaries, the last Russian autocrat (Fig. 2) did not have bright natural talents, he had a very average intellectual ability and, what is especially sad, differed complete lack of will. At the same time, he was an extremely well-mannered, neat and pedantic person, and in everyday life he was unusually simple, unsophisticated and unpretentious in clothes and food and was absolutely indifferent to luxury. At the same time, his worldview was a mixture of terry absolutism with theological mysticism and fatalism. For Nicholas it was also characterized by complete indifference to everything that went beyond court life and family relations. Reign, not rule - became the professional credo of the last autocrat in the history of Russia, and by this he ruined not only himself and his family, but also a great country.

IN October 1894. emperor died as a result of kidney disease Alexander III, and his eldest son ascended the Russian throne Nicholas II(1894-1917) who was destined to become the last Russian autocrat. Three weeks after his father's funeral, he married a woman who would play fatal in the history of Russia and in the life of her crowned husband - an Anglo-German princess Alice of Hesse-Darmstadt, which in Orthodoxy was christened Alexandra Fedorovna.

During the reign Nicholas II a rather narrow circle of people, which was the so-called "shadow cabinet" or "court camarilla". According to a number of authors (V. Kasvinov, E. Chermensky), it was this camarilla that, during the years of the reign of the “master of the Russian land,” had a significant influence on the development and implementation of the main directions of the state’s domestic and foreign policy. The composition of this group was not constant, and the importance and weight of one or another member of this group was determined not by an official position, but by the degree of personal closeness to the king.

First ten years (1894-1903) the actual mistress of the court camarilla was the dowager empress Maria Feodorovna, who, according to contemporaries, was a smart and domineering woman. Under her, the shadow government included the commander Petersburg military district and the Grand Duke of the Metropolitan Guard Vladimir Alexandrovich, Head of the Naval Ministry General-Admiral Grand Duke Aleksey Aleksandrovich, Moscow Governor-General Grand Duke Sergey Aleksandrovich, relative of the king Alexander Fedorovich Trepov and prince Vladimir Petrovich Meshchersky.

Rice. 3. The first ever illumination of the Moscow Kremlin ()

In addition to the aforementioned public, the palace camarilla also included trusted members of the state apparatus. As a rule, these were the ministers of the interior. (Ivan Logginovich Goremykin, Vyacheslav Konstantinovich Plehve) and ministers of the Imperial court and appanages (Illarion Ivanovich Vorontsov-Dashkov, Vladimir Borisovich Frederiks).

In fairness, it should be said that at present a number of historians (A. Bokhanov, V. Tyukavkin) deny the existence of a "shadow government" under NicholasII and call such statements of their opponents pure fiction, which was born outright enemies of the last Russian tsar.

The economic development of Russia and the first industrial boom in 1893-1900.

On at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Russia still remained an agro-industrial country, where agriculture remained the main branch of the economy and largely determined the internal and external economic situation of the country. This situation was connected with the important circumstance that even after the abolition of serfdom and agrarian reform Alexander II Russia did not experience a classic agrarian revolution, and the agrarian-peasant question remained the most acute problem in the country's social life.

However, bourgeois reforms 1860-1870s gave a powerful impetus to the development of large domestic industry, which began to play a more prominent role in the country's economy. Its importance has grown especially since late 1880s, when the industrial revolution was almost completely completed in Russia and from the manufacturing stage of the genesis of capitalism, the country embarked on the path of industrial development and monopoly.

In domestic historical science, the following periodization of the economic development of Russia at the turn of the century has been adopted: 1893-1899. - the first industrial rise; 1900-1903 - economic crisis; 1904-1909 - industrial depression; 1909-1913 - the second industrial rise.

Rice. 4. Imperial yacht "Standart" ()

IN 1893. in the Russian Empire, a powerful industrial upsurge began, which lasted a relatively long time, went quite intensively and very fruitfully. According to most historians (V. Bovykin, V. Laverychev, V. Tyukavkin), this rise played an extremely important role not only in the development of large-scale industrial production, but also had a huge impact on the creation of the entire sectoral structure of domestic industry.

One of the main features of this rise, which determined the main trends and nature of the economic growth of the country's industrial production, was powerful railway construction supported by massive government subsidies. At the same time, it should be especially noted that this program, aimed at creating the country's newest transport infrastructure, was the most important priority of the state domestic policy, which: A) absolutely correctly took into account the enormous importance of railways for the development of the entire economy of the country and its smooth entry into the world system of division of labor; b) relied on fully justified ideas about the enormous geopolitical significance of the entire Asia-Pacific region, where Russia had the most important national and strategic interests.

The gigantic railway construction created a huge, and most importantly, stable demand for metal, coal, timber and other industrial raw materials and materials, which most positively affected the development of all industrial production, and especially its basic industries. Suffice it to say that during this period, the production volumes of industries producing capital goods more than doubled. And although group of consumer goods industries(food, light and textile industries) continued to occupy a dominant position in the structure of industrial production, amounting to about 60% from the total volume of industrial output, this gap has been steadily shrinking in favor of the metallurgical, coal, oil, chemical and other basic industries. Thus, to 1900 when the first major crisis of overproduction arose in the country , the ratio between the branches of group "A"(production of means of production) and industries group "B"(production of consumer goods) changed significantly in favor of the basic industries, which became the most striking evidence of Russia's entry into the industrial phase of the development of capitalism.

This steady trend in the economic development of the country was no less convincingly evidenced by the fact that, according to historians (V. Bovykin, A. Korelin), 40% of all industrial enterprises that existed in Russia to the beginning of the twentieth century., were created precisely in the years of the first industrial boom.

During this period, the metallurgical and extractive industries of industrial production developed at a particularly rapid pace, in particular iron smelting, coal mining and oil production, where production growth increased by 2.5-3 times. Thanks to such a significant growth of these basic industries, according to the main indicators of the development of industrial production Russia not only caught up with France and entered the top five industrialized countries of the world, but also came in third place in the world in iron smelting and in first place in oil production.

Wherein, in terms of industrial production Russia knew no equal: the annual growth of its industrial output amounted to more than 9% , and the total share of the Russian Empire in world industrial production almost doubled and amounted to more than 7%.

Reforms S.Yu. Witte

A huge role in accelerating industrial development Russian Empire at the end 19th century played a reasonable economic policy of the tsarist government, the initiator and conductor of which was the largest statesman and diplomat Sergei Yulievich Witte.

IN August 1892 S. Witte who enjoyed a special position Alexander III, was appointed to the key post of Minister of Finance of the Russian Empire. This ministry occupied an exceptionally important place in the structure of executive power, since its head, in addition to disposing of all the country's finances, exercised real control over the entire state-owned industry, domestic and foreign trade and transport.

Fundamentals of its economic doctrine S. Witte first formulated in a well-known work "National Economy and Friedrich List" (1889), where, despite the traditional prejudice towards Western economic models, characteristic of all Slavophiles, he adopted the ideas of this famous German economist. The fact is that F. List, unlike many representatives of traditional classical political economy, which has always been "a sharp taste of cosmopolitanism", attached particular importance in the formation of the country's economic system to its national specifics.

The essence of economic doctrine S. Witte set out by him in this work was extremely simple: "creating your own industry - this is the fundamental, not only economic, but also political task, which is the cornerstone of our protection system." In essence, there was nothing fundamentally new in these views, and both predecessors S. Witte as finance minister, THEIR. Bunge And I.A. Vyshnegradsky, adhered to the same principles and views. However, not possessing a strong-willed character S. Witte, they constantly maneuvered between "free trading" And "limited protectionism", which absolutely did not suit the new head of the country's financial department.

Rice. 5. Credit ticket in 1 ruble ()

According to some modern historians (A. Korelin, L. Shepelev),autumn 1893 team S. Witte, which included the head of the economic department State CouncilD.M. Solskiy and Minister of Agriculture and State Property A.S. Ermolov, a project was prepared for the reorganization of a number of departments Ministry of Finance, which went far beyond the scope of this particular issue and contained a long-term program of economic reforms in the country. The main elements of this program were: A) establishment and strict observance of new customs tariffs; b) conclusion of profitable international trade agreements; V) establishment and legislative consolidation of new railway tariffs and G) revision of outdated legislation in the field of business and trade and the creation of a new tax system.

1. The main direction of the industrial policy of the new Minister of Finance was significant increase in protectionism, the main instrument of which was the new tariff legislation. Also in 1891. at the initiative of the then Minister of Finance I. Vyshnegradsky a new customs tariff was established for industrial goods imported from abroad, the amount of which amounted to 33% their wholesale price. Since the German Empire was the main and traditional supplier of industrial products to the domestic Russian market, such a measure aroused sharp dissatisfaction with the Berlin cabinet, which began "customs war" with Russia. However, thanks to the emperor's support, S. Witte survived the difficult struggle with the court camarilla, and in January 1894 forced the German government L. Caprivi sign a profitable trade agreement with Russia. Then, in 1895-1896, similar trade agreements have been signed with Austria-Hungary, France and other European states. According to the right opinion of historians (A. Korelin), system of bilateral trade agreements turned customs tariffs into the most important means of international relations, significantly strengthening the role of the Minister of Finance in the conduct of the country's foreign policy.

In addition, the fiscal results of the new tariff policy turned out to be extremely successful. If by the time you arrive S. Witte to the post of Minister of Finance 1892 customs revenue was 140 million rubles, then by the time of his resignation from this post in 1903 customs revenue amounted to 240 million rubles, which amounted to 14% the revenue side of the country's entire budget.

2. Another direction of industrial policy S. Witte was the development and legislative consolidation of a completely new principles of the state system of orders. IN 1895-1896 a whole package of legislative acts was adopted, according to which the entire state order, which was financed from the state budget, should, despite the possibility of its more profitable placement abroad, be placed only within the country.

3. IN 1893-1894 government S. Witte the gradual introduction of a state monopoly on the production of ethyl alcohol and the sale of all wine and vodka products in the country began. Initially, this monopoly was introduced only in Samara, Orenburg, Perm And Ufa provinces countries. However, later, after summing up the first positive results of this consumer reform, wine monopoly began to be introduced in other regions of the country and to July1904 was extended to the entire territory of the Russian state.

Simultaneously with the introduction of the wine monopoly, the place and time of trade in all alcoholic beverages were strictly regulated, and control over compliance with these strict rules was entrusted to General Directorate of fixed fees and sales of drinks Ministry of Finance of the Russian Empire.

According to most scientists (A. Bokhanov, A. Korelin), introduction wine monopoly allowed to significantly increase the revenue side of the country's budget and receive huge funds for the development of the national industry. TO 1901 the state received in the form of net profit more than 660 million rubles, and the share of drinking income in the overall structure of the country's budget revenues amounted to 28%.

4. A serious help in the development of the domestic industry was the monetary and financial reform, the main goal of which was to eliminate the budget deficit, increase confidence in the Russian ruble in the world currency market, curb inflation and strengthen the national currency within the country.

On initial, preparatory stage monetary reform, which was carried out in 1894-1896, S. Witte carried out a series of conversion loans on the Paris Financial Exchange, which made it possible to quickly and effectively stabilize the exchange rate of the Russian ruble, significantly reduce inflationary processes and lending interest rates of the country's commercial banks.

Then, building on the massive gold reserves that have risen from 370 before 645 million rubles, S. Witte transgressed to implement second stage monetary reform, the main provisions of which were developed by the director of the department of the Ministry of Finance N.N. Cutler and professor of economics at St. Petersburg University I.K. Kaufman.

It should be emphasized that a significant and influential part of the members State Council, which is still in March 1895 began to consider the draft monetary reform, constantly rejected its approval, although the main lobbyist for this project was not himself S. Witte, and the head of the finance department State CouncilD.M. Solsky. In this situation, invaluable support S. Witte and his team was rendered by the new Russian emperor Nicholas II, who, exercising his legal right, August 1897 issued a decree on carrying out the gold exchange reform in the country. The essence of the monetary reform was as follows:

A) for the first time in the history of Russia introduced the gold content of the ruble, and from now on, all credit notes could be exchanged completely freely without restrictions for gold bars and gold coins (imperials And semi-imperials) in all debit, commercial and loan banks of the country, as well as branches State Bank Russian Empire. Nikolaev gold coins in the shortest possible time became such a popular form of cash payments and savings that by 1901 in cash circulation there were gold coins for a total amount 695 million rubles.

Rice. 6. Photo of the end of the XIX century ()

b) From now on only National Bank Russian Empire received the monopoly right to issue, that is, to issue new banknotes into circulation. At the same time, a strict rule was established that the amount of gold reserves in bank vaults should be approximately equal to the amount of bank notes in cash circulation. Besides, State Bank was strictly allowed to issue into cash additional credit notes, not backed by gold, for an amount not exceeding 300 million rubles.

It must be said that in historical science there are still completely different assessments of the monetary reform. Some historians (A. Amosov)sharply criticize S. Witte for introducing the gold standard of the national currency, which was imposed on him by the pro-Western part of the Russian financial oligarchy. Other historians (A. Korelin, A. Kirillov, A. Pogrebinsky) believe that the gold exchange reform carried out S. Witte, to a large extent was purely technical. and was associated with the unstable position of world prices for silver. The main goal of the monetary reform was not to create a complete conversion of the Russian ruble, which has been monetary reformE.F. Kancrina1839-1844 completely freely exchanged for any foreign currency and always had fairly high quotes on world financial exchanges. The main goal and main result of the monetary reform were: a) a significant increase in confidence in the Russian ruble in the global foreign exchange market, which made it possible to significantly increase inflow of foreign investments into the Russian economy; b) the acceleration of the industrial-bourgeois modernization of the Russian Empire and its further integration into the world market system.

5. The successful implementation of the monetary reform has sharply increased the number of potential foreign investors who are ready to invest their capital in the development of large Russian industry. In this connection S. Witte, knowing full well that there is clearly not enough own national capital to solve this paramount task, he suggested abandon the traditional government borrowing policy and bet on private foreign investors. However, this position of the Minister of Finance met with strong objections among the inner circle. Nicholas II, in particular the Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich, chairman Committee of MinistersI.N. Durnovo, Minister of War A.N. Kuropatkina, foreign minister M.N. Muravyov, secretary of state VC. Plehve and state controller P.L. Lobko.

It was at the suggestion of these state dignitaries that a draft law was prepared that categorically forbade the import of foreign capital into the Russian Empire. However S. Witte, sending a number of analytical reports to the name of the emperor - "On the program of the commercial and industrial policy of the empire" (1899) And "On the Condition of Our Industry" (1900), managed to convince Nicholas II do not sign this bill, and then completely remove all restrictions on foreign capital investment in national industry and the banking sector.

All reforms carried out S. Witte and his team, played a huge positive role in the industrial-bourgeois modernization of the country. However, for all their importance, it must be recognized that they were half-hearted. According to most historians (V. Bovykin, A. Korelin, V. Laverychev, V. Tyukavkin), S. Witte he was never able to reform the system of joint stock legislation, change the foundations of the old tax policy, remove all legislative and administrative barriers that hindered the development and growth of private entrepreneurship, etc.

Economic crisis 1900-1903 and exacerbation of the political situation

According to most historians (V. Bovykin, B. Ananyich, V. Tyukavkin), V 1900-1903 Russia, for the first time in its history, experienced economic crisis of overproduction, which was the root cause European money crisis1899. , which resulted in: A) a significant increase in the discount rate on loans issued by State and private joint-stock banks; b) a sharp reduction in lending to small and medium-sized industrial enterprises within the country, many of which were on the verge of bankruptcy.

An excess of finished products, a steady drop in prices for it, as well as the inability to get a cash loan, led to bankruptcy and closure 3 thousand enterprises and dismissal of more 100 thousand workers and employees. This crisis hit small and medium enterprises especially hard. Large enterprises, thanks to significant financial support from the government, were able to survive this financial chaos, although there was also a significant reduction in production volumes.

Needless to say, during the economic crisis increasinglyheavy industries affected, where, according to historians, the decline in production to end of 1903 amounted to almost 13% . Metallurgical production had a particularly difficult time, where during this period more than 20% all enterprises. The light industry, textile and food industries experienced this process less painfully, although here, too, the main indicators of the output of finished products decreased by almost 7%.

The economic crisis in industrial production was accompanied by an equally acute crisis in agricultural production, which was caused by crop failure and mass famine in 1901, sharply exacerbated the need and distress of a huge part of the Russian peasantry and proletariat. It was during this period that a powerful strike and strike movement of workers began in large industrial centers and mass peasant unrest in the countryside: the Obukhov Defense in St. Petersburg (1901), the Rostov Strike (1902), the Baku Strike (1903-1904), peasant uprisings in Kharkov (1902), Poltava (1902), Kutaisi (1903) provinces, etc.

In addition, during this period, the process of creating illegal revolutionary (SDKs,SRs) and opposition (liberals) political parties and movements, which was accompanied by bloody terror against prominent representatives of the central and local authorities. In particular, the minister of public education died at the hands of the Socialist-Revolutionary militants N.P. Bogolepov (1901), Minister of Internal Affairs D.S. Sipiagin (1902), Kharkiv governor-general THEM. Obolensky (1902) and Ufa Governor General N.M. Bogdanovich (1903).

Against the backdrop of a sharp aggravation of the political situation within the country, as well as under pressure from the conservative part of his environment, primarily the new Minister of the Interior VC. Plehve, NicholasII displaced S. Witte from the key position of Minister of Finance and appointed him to the high but insignificant post of Chairman Committee of Ministers.

Bibliography

1. Bokhanov A.N. Nicholas II. - M., 1998.
2. Bovykin V.I. Formation of financial capital in Russia. - M., 1984.
3. Ilyin S.V. Witte. - M., 2012.
4. Korelin A.P. S.Yu. Witte - financier, politician, diplomat. - M., 1998.
5. Laverychev V.Ya. State and monopolies in pre-revolutionary Russia. - M., 1982.
6. Oldenburg S.S. Reign of Emperor Nicholas II. - M., 1992.
7. Pipes R. Russia under the old regime. - M., 1993.

Nicholas 2 Alexandrovich (May 6, 1868 - July 17, 1918) - the last Russian emperor, who ruled from 1894 to 1917, the eldest son of Alexander 3 and Maria Feodorovna, was an honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In the Soviet historiographic tradition, he was given the epithet "Bloody". The life of Nicholas 2 and his reign are described in this article.

Briefly about the reign of Nicholas 2

During the years there was an active economic development of Russia. At the same time, the country lost to the sovereign in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, which was one of the reasons for the revolutionary events of 1905-1907, in particular, the adoption of the Manifesto on October 17, 1905, according to which the creation of various political parties was allowed, and also formed The State Duma. According to the same manifesto, agrarian activity began. In 1907, Russia became a member of the Entente and participated in the First World War as part of it. In August 1915, Nikolai 2 Romanov became the supreme commander in chief. On March 2, 1917, the sovereign abdicated. He and his entire family were shot. The Russian Orthodox Church canonized them in 2000.

Childhood, early years

When Nikolai Aleksandrovich was 8 years old, his home education began. The program included a general education course lasting eight years. And then - a course of higher sciences lasting five years. It was based on the program of the classical gymnasium. But instead of Greek and Latin, the future king mastered botany, mineralogy, anatomy, zoology and physiology. The courses of Russian literature, history and foreign languages ​​were expanded. In addition, the higher education program provided for the study of law, political economy and military affairs (strategy, jurisprudence, the service of the General Staff, geography). Nicholas 2 was also engaged in fencing, vaulting, music, and drawing. Alexander 3 and his wife Maria Feodorovna themselves chose mentors and teachers for the future tsar. Among them were military and statesmen, scientists: N. Kh. Bunge, K. P. Pobedonostsev, N. N. Obruchev, M. I. Dragomirov, N. K. Girs, A. R. Drenteln.

Carier start

From childhood, the future emperor Nicholas 2 was interested in military affairs: he perfectly knew the traditions of the officer environment, the soldier did not shy away, realizing himself as their mentor-patron, he easily endured the inconveniences of army life during camp maneuvers and training camps.

Immediately after the birth of the future sovereign, he was enrolled in several guards regiments and made commander of the 65th Moscow Infantry Regiment. At the age of five, Nicholas 2 (dates of reign - 1894-1917) was appointed commander of the Life Guards of the Reserve Infantry Regiment, and a little later, in 1875, of the Erivan Regiment. The future sovereign received his first military rank (ensign) in December 1875, and in 1880 he was promoted to second lieutenant, and four years later - to lieutenant.

Nicholas 2 entered active military service in 1884, and starting from July 1887 he served in and reached the rank of captain. He became a captain in 1891, and a year later - a colonel.

Beginning of the reign

After a long illness, Alexander 3 died, and Nicholas 2 took over the reign in Moscow on the same day, at the age of 26, on October 20, 1894.

During his solemn official coronation on May 18, 1896, dramatic events took place on the Khodynka field. There were mass riots, thousands of people were killed and injured in a spontaneous stampede.

The Khodynka field was not previously intended for festivities, since it was a training base for the troops, and therefore it was not landscaped. There was a ravine right next to the field, and the field itself was covered with numerous pits. On the occasion of the celebration, the pits and the ravine were covered with boards and covered with sand, and along the perimeter they set up benches, booths, stalls for distributing free vodka and food. When people, attracted by rumors about the distribution of money and gifts, rushed to the buildings, the flooring that covered the pits collapsed, and people fell, not having time to stand up: a crowd was already running along them. The police, swept away by the wave, could not do anything. Only after reinforcements arrived did the crowd gradually disperse, leaving the bodies of mutilated and trampled people on the square.

The first years of the reign

In the first years of the reign of Nicholas 2, a general census of the country's population and a monetary reform were carried out. During the reign of this monarch, Russia became an agrarian-industrial state: railways were built, cities grew, industrial enterprises arose. The sovereign made decisions aimed at the social and economic modernization of Russia: the golden circulation of the ruble was introduced, several laws on workers' insurance, Stolypin's agrarian reform was carried out, laws on religious tolerance and universal primary education were adopted.

Main events

The years of the reign of Nicholas 2 were marked by a strong aggravation in the internal political life of Russia, as well as a difficult foreign policy situation (the events of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, the Revolution of 1905-1907 in our country, the First World War, and in 1917 - the February Revolution) .

The Russo-Japanese War, which began in 1904, although it did not cause much damage to the country, however, significantly shook the authority of the sovereign. After numerous failures and losses in 1905, the Battle of Tsushima ended in a crushing defeat for the Russian fleet.

Revolution 1905-1907

On January 9, 1905, the revolution began, this date is called Bloody Sunday. Government troops shot down a demonstration of workers, organized, as is commonly believed, by George of the transit prison in St. Petersburg. As a result of the executions, more than a thousand demonstrators died, who participated in a peaceful procession to the Winter Palace in order to submit a petition to the sovereign about the needs of the workers.

After this uprising swept many other Russian cities. Armed performances were in the navy and in the army. So, on June 14, 1905, the sailors took possession of the battleship Potemkin, brought it to Odessa, where at that time there was a general strike. However, the sailors did not dare to land ashore to support the workers. "Potemkin" headed to Romania and surrendered to the authorities. Numerous speeches forced the king to sign the Manifesto on October 17, 1905, which granted citizens civil liberties.

Not being a reformer by nature, the king was forced to implement reforms that did not correspond to his convictions. He believed that in Russia the time had not yet come for freedom of speech, a constitution, and universal suffrage. However, Nicholas 2 (whose photo is presented in the article) was forced to sign the Manifesto on October 17, 1905, as an active public movement for political transformation began.

Establishment of the State Duma

The State Duma was established by the tsar's manifesto of 1906. In the history of Russia, for the first time, the emperor began to rule in the presence of a representative elected body from the population. That is, Russia is gradually becoming a constitutional monarchy. However, despite these changes, the emperor during the reign of Nicholas 2 still had enormous powers of authority: he issued laws in the form of decrees, appointed ministers and the prime minister accountable only to him, was the head of the court, the army and the patron of the Church, determined the foreign policy the course of our country.

The first revolution of 1905-1907 showed the deep crisis that existed at that time in the Russian state.

Personality of Nicholas 2

From the point of view of his contemporaries, his personality, main character traits, advantages and disadvantages were very ambiguous and sometimes caused conflicting assessments. According to many of them, Nicholas 2 was characterized by such an important feature as weak will. However, there is a lot of evidence that the sovereign stubbornly strove to implement his ideas and undertakings, sometimes reaching stubbornness (only once, when signing the Manifesto on October 17, 1905, he was forced to submit to someone else's will).

In contrast to his father, Alexander 3, Nicholas 2 (see his photo below) did not create the impression of a strong personality. However, according to people close to him, he had exceptional self-control, sometimes interpreted as indifference to the fate of people and the country (for example, with composure that struck the sovereign’s entourage, he met the news of the fall of Port Arthur and the defeat of the Russian army in World War I war).

Being engaged in public affairs, Tsar Nicholas 2 showed "extraordinary perseverance", as well as attentiveness and accuracy (for example, he never had a personal secretary, and he put all the seals on letters with his own hand). Although, in general, the management of a huge power was still a "heavy burden" for him. According to contemporaries, Tsar Nicholas 2 had a tenacious memory, observation, in communication he was a friendly, modest and sensitive person. Most of all, he valued his habits, peace, health, and especially the well-being of his own family.

Nicholas 2 and his family

The support of the sovereign was his family. Alexandra Fedorovna was not just a wife for him, but also an adviser, a friend. Their wedding took place on November 14, 1894. The interests, ideas and habits of the spouses often did not coincide, largely due to cultural differences, because the empress was a German princess. However, this did not interfere with family harmony. The couple had five children: Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia and Alexei.

The drama of the royal family was caused by the illness of Alexei, who suffered from hemophilia (blood incoagulability). It was this disease that caused the appearance in the royal house of Grigory Rasputin, who was famous for the gift of healing and foresight. He often helped Alexei cope with bouts of illness.

World War I

1914 was a turning point in the fate of Nicholas 2. It was at this time that the First World War began. The sovereign did not want this war, trying until the very last moment to avoid a bloody massacre. But on July 19 (August 1), 1914, Germany nevertheless decided to start a war with Russia.

In August 1915, marked by a series of military setbacks, Nicholas 2, whose reign was already drawing to a close, assumed the role of commander in chief of the Russian army. Previously, it was assigned to Prince Nikolai Nikolaevich (the Younger). Since then, the sovereign only occasionally came to the capital, spending most of his time in Mogilev, at the headquarters of the Supreme Commander.

The First World War intensified Russia's internal problems. The king and his entourage began to be considered the main culprit for the defeats and the protracted campaign. There was an opinion that treason was "breeding" in the Russian government. The military command of the country, headed by the emperor, at the beginning of 1917 created a plan for a general offensive, according to which it was planned to end the confrontation by the summer of 1917.

Abdication of Nicholas 2

However, at the end of February of the same year, unrest began in Petrograd, which, due to the absence of strong opposition from the authorities, grew in a few days into mass political uprisings against the tsar's dynasty and government. At first, Nicholas 2 planned to use force to achieve order in the capital, but, realizing the true scale of the protests, he abandoned this plan, fearing even more bloodshed that it could cause. Some of the high-ranking officials, political figures and members of the sovereign's retinue convinced him that a change in government was necessary to suppress the unrest, the abdication of Nicholas 2 from the throne.

After painful reflections on March 2, 1917 in Pskov, during a trip on the imperial train, Nicholas 2 decided to sign an act of abdication from the throne, transferring the reign to his brother, Prince Mikhail Alexandrovich. However, he refused to accept the crown. The abdication of Nicholas 2 thus meant the end of the dynasty.

Last months of life

Nicholas 2 and his family were arrested on March 9 of the same year. First, for five months they were in Tsarskoye Selo, under guard, and in August 1917 they were sent to Tobolsk. Then, in April 1918, the Bolsheviks moved Nicholas and his family to Yekaterinburg. Here, on the night of July 17, 1918, in the center of the city, in the basement in which the prisoners were imprisoned, Emperor Nicholas 2, his five children, his wife, as well as several close associates of the king, including the family doctor Botkin and servants, without any trial and the investigations were shot. In total, eleven people were killed.

In 2000, by decision of the Church, Nicholas 2 Romanov, as well as his entire family, were canonized, and an Orthodox church was erected on the site of the Ipatiev house.