The birth and development of the German state. A Brief History of Germany German History

Germany
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Germany (German: Deutschland [ˈdɔʏtʃlant], the official name of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland (BRD) [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant])) is a state in Central Europe. It borders Denmark to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria and Switzerland to the south, and France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands to the west. In the north, the natural border is formed by the North and Baltic Seas. The Russian name comes from lat. Germany.

The capital is the city of Berlin (the seat of the Bundestag and the government, some ministries are located in Bonn). The form of government is a parliamentary republic, the form of government is a symmetrical federation of 16 autonomous lands.

Germany is a member of the European Union and NATO, is a member of the G8, and claims to be a permanent member of the UN Security Council.
Name

The Russian name of the state Germany comes from the Latin name Germania, which goes back to the writings of Latin authors of the 1st century AD and is formed from the ethnonym Germans (lat. Germanus). It was first used by Julius Caesar in his "Notes on the Gallic War" regarding the tribes living beyond the Rhine. The word itself probably has non-Latin roots and comes from the Celtic gair ("neighbor").

In German, the state is called Deutschland. The modern name comes from pragerms. Eudiskaz. The name Deutsch (derived from the Proto-German Þeodisk) originally meant "related to the people" and meant primarily the language. Land means "country". The modern form of writing the name of the state has been used since the 15th century.

In the USSR, the name Federal Republic of Germany was used in Russian. This form, for example, is used in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia. After the accession of the German Democratic Republic to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990, it was decided, by mutual agreement between the governments of Germany and Russia, not to decline the word Germany in the official name of the state. Correct: the Federal Republic of Germany (and not the Federal Republic of Germany).

Story
History of Germany

Antiquity
Prehistoric Germany
Ancient Germans
Great Migration
Middle Ages
Frankish state
East Frankish Kingdom
Kingdom of Germany
Holy Roman Empire Holy Roman Empire
Creation of a single state
Flag of the Confederation of the Rhine Confederation of the Rhine
Germany German Confederation

Revolution of 1848-1849
Austro-Prussian War 1866

Germany North German Confederation

Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
German unification 1871

German Reich
Germany German Empire

World War I
Treaty of Versailles

Germany Weimar Republic
Germany Third Reich

The Second World War

Germany after World War II
Germany Zones of occupation: amer. + Brit. + owls. + French
Deportation of the Germans
Germany Germany + Germany East Germany + Germany Zap. Berlin
German unification 1990
Germany Modern Germany

Main article: History of Germany

Below is only a brief outline of the history of Germany, as well as the historical processes that took place on the territory of the modern Federal Republic of Germany.

The first mention of the ancient Germans appeared in the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans. One of the first mentions of the Germans refers to the year 98. It was made by the Roman chronicler Tacitus (lat. Tacitus). The entire territory of modern Germany east of the Elbe (Slavic Laba) until the 10th century was inhabited by Slavic tribes. (see more details: Polabian Slavs). By the XII-XIV centuries, these lands gradually became part of various German state formations that made up the so-called Holy Roman Empire. As these territories were part of the German states, over several centuries, the local Slavs gradually, almost completely Germanized. This process dragged on until the late Middle Ages and the beginning of the new time, and in some places, with the last, not yet completely Germanized Slavic people of Germany - the Lusatians, continues to this day.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, the Frankish state was formed, which three centuries later, under Charlemagne, turned into an empire (800). Charles's empire covered the territories of a number of modern states, in particular Germany. However, the empire of Charlemagne did not last long - the grandchildren of this emperor divided it among themselves, as a result of which three kingdoms were formed - West Frankish (later France), East Frankish (later Germany) and the Middle Kingdom (soon disintegrated into Italy, Provence and Lorraine).

Traditionally, the founding date of the German state is considered to be February 2, 962: on this day, the East Frankish king Otto I was crowned in Rome and became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.

Despite the attempts of the emperors to unite the Holy Roman Empire, it broke up into numerous independent states and cities. After the Reformation and the Thirty Years' War, the emperor's power was still nominal.

This situation continued until 1806, when, under the pressure of Napoleon I, the existence of the Holy Roman Empire was terminated and its emperor began to bear only the title of Emperor of Austria. The number of German states was significantly reduced. The Congress of Vienna contributed to the further unification of the German states, as a result of which the German Confederation was formed from 38 German states under the leadership of Austria.

After the revolution of 1848, a conflict began to brew between the growing influence of Prussia and Austria. This led to the war of 1866, in which Prussia won and annexed a number of German principalities. The German Confederation collapsed.

In 1868, the North German Confederation was created, headed by the President - the King of Prussia. On December 10, 1870, the Reichstag of the North German Confederation renamed the North German Confederation into the German Empire (German das Deutsche Reich), the constitution of the North German Confederation into the constitution of the German Empire, and the President of the North German Confederation into the German Emperor (German der Deutsche Kaiser). Count Otto von Bismarck was appointed Chancellor of Germany.

In 1914, Germany entered the First World War, the loss of which led to the end of the monarchy and the proclamation of the republic.

In 1933, the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party, Adolf Hitler, was appointed Chancellor of Germany, under which Germany pursued an aggressive expansionist and revanchist policy, which in 1939 led to World War II.

After Germany was defeated in World War II in May 1945, its statehood was terminated, vast territories were separated from Germany, and the rest was divided into 4 zones of occupation: Soviet, American, British and French. In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was created on the territories of the American, British and French zones of occupation, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) on the territory of the Soviet zone of occupation.


On October 3, 1990, the German Democratic Republic and West Berlin were incorporated into the Federal Republic of Germany.

It has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation, which were established by the USSR in 1955 (with the GDR in 1949).
State structure
Main article: State structure of Germany
See also: Political system of Germany, Political parties in Germany, and Constitution of Germany
Reichstag, seat of the German parliament, German Bundestag

Berlin is the capital of Germany. Meanwhile, in the course of lengthy negotiations regarding the terms of transferring the capital from Bonn to Berlin, Bonn managed to keep most of the federal ministries on its territory, as well as a number of the main important federal departments (for example, the federal audit chamber).

Germany is a democratic, social, legal state. It consists of 16 lands. The state structure is regulated by the Basic Law of Germany. The form of government in Germany is a parliamentary republic.

Germany is a democratic state: “All state power comes from the people (Volke). It is carried out by the people through elections and voting, as well as through special bodies of legislation, executive power and justice.

The head of state is the federal president, who performs rather representative functions and appoints the federal chancellor. The Federal President of the Federal Republic of Germany takes the following oath: “I swear to devote my energies to the good of the German people (deutschen Volkes), to increase their wealth, protect it from damage, observe and protect the Basic Law and the laws of the Federation, conscientiously fulfill my duties and observe justice in relation to everyone . God help me.” The Federal Chancellor is the head of the German Government. He directs the activities of the Federal Government. Therefore, the form of government in Germany is often also called chancellor democracy.

Germany has a federal structure. This means that the political system of the state is divided into two levels: the federal level, at which national decisions of international importance are made, and the regional level, at which the tasks of the federal lands are solved. Each level has its own executive, legislative and judicial authorities. Although the states have unequal representation in the Bundesrat, legally they have equal status, which characterizes the German federation as symmetrical.

The German Bundestag (parliament) and the Bundesrat (organ of representation of the states) carry out legislative and legislative functions at the federal level and are authorized by a two-thirds majority in each of the bodies to amend the constitution. At the regional level, lawmaking is carried out by the parliaments of the lands - Landtags and Burgerschafts (parliaments of the cities-lands of Hamburg and Bremen). They make laws that apply within the lands. Parliaments in all states except Bavaria are unicameral.
Office of the Federal Chancellor of Germany in Berlin

Executive power at the federal level is represented by the Federal Government, headed by the Chancellor. The head of the executive authorities at the level of the subjects of the federation is the prime minister (or mayor of the city-land). The federal and state administrations are led by ministers who are at the head of the administrative bodies.

The Federal Constitutional Court enforces the constitution. The supreme courts of justice also include the Federal Court of Justice in Karlsruhe, the Federal Administrative Court in Leipzig, the Federal Labor Court, the Federal Social Court and the Federal Financial Court in Munich. Most of the litigation is the responsibility of the Länder. Federal courts are mainly engaged in review cases and check the decisions of the courts of the Länder for formal legality.
German "hidden" federalism

Speaking about the form of government, the term "hidden" federal state is often applied to Germany.

Although the Basic Law establishes the distribution of powers at the level of the federal states and the federation as a whole, at the same time it combines the advantages of a centralized state with the advantages of a federal state.

For example, citizens most often resolve issues through the land authorities and local administrations, which carry out their activities on behalf of the lands (according to the principle of subsidiarity).

However, public life is regulated for the most part by federal laws. The point is that, according to the Basic Law, it is necessary to strive for equalization of living conditions in all federal states of Germany, which are determined by the social and economic policy of the state. For example, the police is a federal agency with a single federal leadership (there is no police of the federal states, like the state police in the United States).


So, the social and economic spheres of public life are regulated mainly by federal laws. In this aspect, the German federal state is similar to the centralized one.

On the one hand, the land administrations execute the laws of the given federal land, which is typical for a federal state. On the other hand, they enforce most federal laws, which is not typical for a federal government.
Stages of reforming the federal system

After the adoption of the Basic Law in 1949, the German authorities repeatedly made attempts to improve the federal system. The first large-scale reform was carried out by the "grand coalition" government (CDU/CSU-SPD) under Chancellor KG. Kiesinger in 1966-1969. As a result of the reform, the interweaving of the interests of the lands and the federal center received a new dimension.

In the financial sector, the principle of "cooperative federalism" was introduced, which will become one of the stumbling blocks at the present stage of the history of Germany.

Under the Schroeder government (1998-2005), the goal was to carry out a large-scale constitutional reform of federalism in order to simplify the political processes in the country, make them more transparent to the population and less dependent on momentary party calculations. The reform was designed to redistribute powers between the center and the subjects of the federation, clarify the legislative competence between the Bundestag and the Bundesrat, and ultimately increase the viability of the state as a whole.

The number of laws requiring the mandatory approval of the Bundesrat was planned to be reduced to 35-40% by removing laws on the principles of administration of all lands from the coordination mechanism with the Bundesrat. That is, in the future, the Länder will have to proceed from federal guidelines, which implies giving the Landtags greater responsibility.

In March 2003, the Federalism Convention (composed of the heads of state parliaments and the leaders of the factions of the parties represented in them) approved the "Lübeck Declaration", containing specific measures to modernize the federal system.

On October 17, 2003, the Commission on Federalism was created, which included the then Secretary General of the SPD F. Müntefering and the Chairman of the CSU and Prime Minister of Bavaria E. Stoiber.

On November 18, 2005, a coalition agreement between the CDU / CSU and the SPD (“Together for Germany - with courage and humanity”) was signed, which stipulated the proposals of these parties on the division of powers and responsibilities between the lands and the center.

The innovation package covers the following areas:

1. Education Now the current issues of education are within the competence of the Länder, and they will be directly transferred funds from the federal budget. This excludes misuse of the received funds.

2. Distribution of income. Federal laws cannot set tasks for cities and communities that require additional material expenses from local governments. If federal laws interfere with the competence of the Länder, these laws must necessarily obtain the consent of the Bundesrat.

3. High school. Completely relegated to the jurisdiction of the lands. The Federation may participate in the financing of scientific research, but only with the consent of the Länder.

4. Environmental protection The federation can develop framework legislation, but the Länder can make decisions deviating from it. In doing so, the EU environmental regulations must also be taken into account.


5. Budget Introduction of the EU-style Stability Pact. In connection with the problem of land debts, eventual debt sanctions will be 65% on the shoulders of the federation, and 35% on the shoulders of the lands.

6. Land legislation The jurisdiction of the Länder included housing law, issues of meetings, associations and the press, the penitentiary system, hunting legislation, opening hours of shops, rules for opening restaurants.

7. Combating terrorism The exclusive competence of the federation (Federal Office of the Criminal Police), along with nuclear energy, the registration of citizens, the regulation of arms and explosives.

8. Public service Competence of the Länder.

On December 15, 2006, a new stage of federalism reform started. The main issues unresolved at the 1st stage were: the reduction of land debts, distortions in financial relations between the federation and the lands and the lands themselves.

The essence of the problem is that all the lands must carry out federal tasks, but their possibilities for this are very different.

Therefore, the German Constitution (paragraph 2, article 107) states that “the law must ensure a commensurate equalization of differences in the financial capabilities of the lands; at the same time, the financial capabilities and needs of the communities should be taken into account ”For this, there was a procedure for equalizing the budgetary provision of the regions, that is, part of the funds of the“ rich lands ”are redistributed in favor of the“ poor ”, sometimes with infusions from the federal budget.

Formally, the federal state structure in Germany has two levels: the federation as a whole state and the states as members of this state. But in reality, there is also a "third", informal level of relations between the federation and the lands - "cooperative federalism"; that is, along with the horizontal self-coordination of the lands, the practice of vertical coordination along the federation-Land axis has developed: the participation of the federation in land financing. Within the framework of vertical coordination, commissions are created from representatives of the federation and the states.

The main problems of horizontal and vertical relations in Germany are related to the distribution of financial resources between rich and poor federal states and the implementation of the principle of "equivalence" of living conditions.

"Horizontal" alignment allows you to help underdeveloped regions by redistributing the income that the federation and the states receive jointly (corporate and income tax). This situation causes a lot of criticism, primarily from the liberals (FDP, O. Lambsdorf), who are in favor of reducing the "charitable" role of the state.

Politicians of other parties also agree with similar proposals. For example, the Prime Minister of Bavaria, Stoiber (CSU), calls for increased regionalization, and the Prime Minister of Baden-Württemberg, Teufel (CDU), calls for a reduction in the number of lands and an increase in legislative (legislative) terms.

Briefly, their ideas for reforming federalism can be formulated as follows:

Assignment to each level of its tax powers; the transition of all lands to the status of "solid financial units";
Reducing the "horizontal alignment" of land budgets;
Cancellation of mixed financing;
Reducing the legislative competence of the federation in favor of the lands by limiting the powers of the center to such areas as defense, law and order, human rights, foreign policy and "framework" regulation of environmental, economic and social policy issues;
Significant limitation of the Bundesrat's veto power. The general principles of administration in the Länder were removed from the topics of the bills requiring the mandatory approval of the Bundesrat.

The search for a more effective model of federalism is complicated in Germany by three factors: the aggravation of contradictions between poor and rich lands, the presence of competing projects of large political parties, and the needs of European federalism, which is forced to take into account both the experience of states with centralized government (England and France) and the experience of federations (Germany). ).
Foreign policy
Angela Merkel and Dmitry Medvedev. October 2008

In foreign policy, the West-oriented German Chancellor K. Adenauer (1949-1963) acted in accordance with the slogan of the ideologist of South German liberalism K. von Rottek: "Freedom without unity is better than unity without freedom." German European Policy 1949-1963 how the relationship between ends and means is divided into two stages.

In its first phase (from 1949 to the mid-1950s), it was the means by which West Germany planned to rebuild its economy, build up its own armed forces, and achieve recognition by world powers. Foreign policy was pursued for the sake of domestic.


At the second stage (from the mid-1950s to 1963), now domestic policy was pursued for the sake of foreign policy: Germany strove to become not just an independent, but also a strong state. European military policy of Germany in 1958-63. was based on rapprochement with France (Berlin-Paris axis) and the rejection of the plan of "multilateral nuclear forces" proposed by the United States. The signing of an agreement on German-French cooperation drew a line under the centuries-old confrontation between these states.

Adenauer recognized the international management of Ruhr industry established by the Petersberg Accords, considering this as the basis for future Western European integration. In 1950, Adenauer adopted the plan developed by R. Schuman to create the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). Adenauer also supported the idea of ​​creating a European Defense Community (EDC) proposed by W. Churchill.

In 1952, the Bonn Treaty was signed, which abolished the occupation status and granted the Federal Republic of Germany state sovereignty.

On May 5, 1955, the Paris Agreements came into force, the most important of which was the agreement on Germany's entry into NATO. However, at that time, Germany's sovereignty could not be called complete: foreign troops remained on its territory, Germany was deprived of the right to possess many types of strategic weapons.

In 1959, a conference of four powers was held in Geneva: the USA, Great Britain, the USSR and France, which ended with the actual recognition of the existence of two German states: the FRG and the GDR.

One of the important priorities of Germany's foreign policy is to deepen the integration of the EU states. Germany plays a decisive role in the construction and organization of European structures. At the same time, from the very beginning, the goal was to dispel the post-war fear of the neighboring countries of Germany and to make redundant the restrictions imposed by the Soviet occupying forces. Since 1950, Germany has become a member of the Council of Europe, and in 1957 signed the Rome Agreements, which became the foundation for the creation of the European Union: Germany joined the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).

So, the important results of the European policy of Germany in 1949-63. became: the recognition of Germany's sovereignty and its status as an important European partner and the beginning of the formation of the foundations of Germany's economic power.

Germany has been a member of the Group of Ten since 1964.

During the Cold War, Germany's foreign policy was severely limited. One of its main tasks was the reunification of West Germany with East Germany. Military-politically, Germany was closely connected with the NATO bloc. American nuclear warheads were stationed in West Germany.

Modern Germany is rightfully considered a nodal center both between East and West, and between the Scandinavian and Mediterranean regions, the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.

With the accession of the GDR to the FRG, the threat of using the GDR as a base for the deployment of foreign troops was eliminated, the risk of turning Germany into an object of the use of nuclear weapons, as well as the dangerous game of "third countries" on the contradictions between the GDR and the FRG, was eliminated.

Until recently, one of the most controversial was the question of the possibility of using the German armed forces outside the sphere of joint responsibility of NATO.

According to the constitution, Germany has no right to take part in wars of conquest. This limitation is the subject of ongoing controversy. Its armed forces stand to protect the sovereignty and integrity of Germany and the NATO countries.

Only recently has the Bundeswehr taken part in various activities aimed at maintaining peace. This became possible after the decision of the Constitutional Court, which allowed the use of the German Armed Forces for UN peacekeeping missions, and for each specific case, the consent of the Bundestag is required, which until now was given only with temporary restrictions. In this case, the use of weapons only for self-defense is allowed. All attempts by various parties to get the Constitutional Court to review this issue have so far been rejected. German troops took and are taking part in resolving the following conflict situations:
Germany is a state with a federal structure; consisting of 16 equal subjects - lands (Länder;), three of them - cities (Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg).

Official name: Federal Republic of Germany
Territory: 357 thousand sq. km.
Population: As of 1997, 81.8 million people. The vast majority are Germans and Danes. Population density - 230 people per 1 sq. km.
Languages: German, limited English
Religion: Christianity, Protestants (Lutherans over 50%) and Catholics
Capital
Largest cities: Bremen, Hamburg, Leipzig, Dusseldorf, Stuttgart, Cologne, Frankfurt, Munich
Administrative division: Germany consists of 16 states, each of which has its own capital, constitution, parliament and government.
Form of government: democratic-parliamentary federal country, legislative federal body - the Bundestag. .
head of state: federal president.
Head of the government: Federal Chancellor.
Currency: Euro.

Brief history of Germany

Until the end of the 5th century, there was no state on the territory of modern Germany. The first was the Frankish kingdom. Its rulers during the 6th-8th centuries completed the unification of the Germanic tribes, and in 800 Charlemagne proclaimed the creation of an empire. In 843, it broke up into independent states. In the eastern part, the German kingdom proper developed.

His main foreign policy task was the revival of the lost empire of Charles. In 962, German troops managed to take Rome, and the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" appeared on the map of Europe. Its heyday came in the XII-XIII centuries. Under Frederick I Barbarossa in the middle of the 12th century, the borders of the German Empire expanded significantly.

At the beginning of the 16th century, a split occurred in Germany along religious lines. At that time, Martin Luther began his activity. As a result of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), Germany was split into several dozen principalities and kingdoms, the most influential of which was Prussia.

From the middle of the 19th century, Prussia gathered disparate principalities into a single whole, and after victories in the Franco-Prussian War over Austria and France, which held back centralization, in 1871 announced the creation of an all-German Reich-Empire with its capital in Berlin. After several successful military campaigns and international treaties, the Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck actually restored the German Empire and declared King Wilhelm of Prussia the first German Emperor (Kaiser).

As long as the leading international positions in the economy were in the hands of England, France, Russia and the United States, Germany could not count on European domination. The German Empire reached its peak by 1914. However, after the defeat in the First World War and the humiliating Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919, the country lost part of its lands and was subject to huge indemnities. In 1919, Germany was proclaimed a republic and, according to the constitution adopted in the city of Weimar, was called the Weimar Republic.

The victory of France and England slowed down the development of Germany, transferred it to a secondary position in world politics and thus gave rise to the growth of the national-revanchist aspirations of the German people. In the wake of such sentiments, in 1933, the Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, came to power in Berlin and announced the formation of the Third Reich.

During the years of Hitler's rule, Germany remilitarized the Rhineland, captured Austria, part of Czechoslovakia. On September 1, 1939, by attacking Poland, Germany started World War II, in which it was defeated.

In 1945, Germany was occupied by the Allied forces and divided into four sectors. Three sectors: French, British and American later formed the FRG, and the Soviet sector - the GDR. In 1949, Germany was divided into two states, and Berlin into two sectors.

The two German states existed until October 3, 1990, when East Germany and West Germany merged. On June 20, 1991, Berlin was proclaimed the capital of a united Germany.

After reunification, Germany became even more diverse. Now it is not only located in the heart of Europe, but literally lives there: being open to all corners of the world and ready to establish new relations with old neighbors.

In this, Germany has remained true to its 2,000-year history of change.

On this land rich in historical events lives the Germany of today. At every step, traces left by successive eras are visible. All these counts, princes, dukes, archbishops, kings and emperors built for themselves throughout the country castles, magnificent residences, palaces with magnificent parks and gardens, proud cities with churches, monasteries and cathedrals. The heritage of the Middle Ages and the burghers still determine the appearance of many cities today, creating an impressive contrast to modern architecture.

Tourism in Germany

Germany is open to the whole world. Germany shares a common border with 9 other states. The main routes of communication are designed to move around the country as quickly as possible: highways, a dense network of railways with high-speed trains, airports in every more or less large city.

However, true Germany must be experienced outside of noisy traffic. Smooth and wide rural roads will lead you to regions where you can get in touch with the original hospitality and please your gastronomic taste. Many hotels are located in historical architectural monuments; There is sure to be a hotel to suit every traveler, whether you prefer dreamy coziness or the opulent sheen of luxury furnishings. In family hotels, the whole family goes out of their way to please you; so tune in to the fact that it will be difficult for you to leave such a place.

In big cities, you will be surprised by the internationality of hotels and restaurants and come to the conclusion that the best chefs in Italy, Japan, China, India, Thailand, Greece and Spain have all specially gathered in Germany to compete with the national German cuisine.

All more or less interesting places have their own tourist service bureaus that provide all the necessary information and invite you on excursions to the surrounding places.

The season continues all year round. Summer in Germany is the time for outdoor parties and beer sipping in beer gardens, at the beginning of the year you can plunge headlong into the unrestrained whirlpool of carnival festivities, and in winter you have every reason to sleepless nights throughout the ball season.

Cities in Germany

The Hanseatic City welcomes visitors in a respectable, majestic and elegant manner.

This is especially true of the Inner Alster region with its shopping palaces and the lush Jungfernstieg promenade. However, the vital artery of Hamburg is the Elbe with its large port serving international trade, with a whole city of warehouses, a fish market and the St. Pauli entertainment quarter.

Old Hanseatic city on the Weser. It also has a rich tradition of a commercial seaport, but is more comfortable than the vast Hamburg.

The city is distinguished by many richly decorated bourgeois houses, a magnificent facade of the town hall in the Renaissance style, the old building of the Bremen merchants guild near the market square with Roland and the Bremen Town Musicians.

In the capital of Germany, like in no other city, the past, present and future collide with each other with such force: in architecture, in worldview and in the way of thinking.

Berlin is once again experiencing a breakthrough, and in this it is again in its element. There is an fusion of the eastern and western parts of the city.

The attractive force of Berlin for young people is incomparable. This urbanized "melting pot" lit up with a new light against the backdrop of its centuries-old history.

The complete opposite of Berlin - - the center of a very friendly region with a rich past.

It makes sense to explore the richly restored city center with the famous Medler and Speckx Hof shopping arcade, the old town hall and the Church of St. Nicholas.

One of the most stylish cities where it is especially pleasant to shop is Dusseldorf with its famous Koenigs-allee. You can see from the strollers here the elegance and pleasure with which money can be spent.

The World City of Commerce and Banking is not only synonymous with state-of-the-art high-rise architecture. The city exudes an original charm, it has a lot of greenery, original bars and taverns, extraordinary shops and a rich cultural life.

It is rightfully famous for its special sincerity. Traditional October festivities, the palace brewery, the English garden - this city is a solid attraction, friendly and with style.

Charm Stuttgart lies in its sometimes almost rustic appearance. Nestled among vineyards and meadows, this large city resembles more a huge viticultural village than a respectable automotive center.

This impression is changed only by the sight of an unparalleled shopping center with its huge glass structures that form high halls with terraced shops full of everything your heart desires.

Neighboring with it - the Rhine metropolis and the center of carnival festivities - radiates the joy of life in its purest form.

Contrasts make this city unique. Here and there traces of an old Roman settlement are visible, the extravagant background of which is created by modern buildings.

Museums in Germany

Art collections in Germany are among the largest in the world.

• The State Museum of Cultural Treasures of Prussia, in the Dahlem complex of which a collection of ancient Egyptian art objects and paintings by old masters is stored, and in the National Gallery - a collection of paintings of the 19th - 20th centuries;
• Museum of Applied Arts;
• Museum of Musical Instruments;
• the Pergamon Museum with a magnificent collection of ancient Roman, Greek and Asian art, including entire walls of ancient temples;
• the Bode Museum with a collection of ancient Egyptian and Byzantine art;
• Museum of Decorative Arts in Charlottenburg Palace, it also has an art gallery with a collection of paintings from the 13th-16th centuries, a sculpture gallery,
• Museums of Indian, Islamic art;
• Museum of German Folklore.

• State National Galleries Alte Pinakothek (old masters) and Neue Pinakothek (modern art);
• Bavarian National Museum with a collection of sculpture, decorative art, folk art; state collection of exhibits of natural history;
• Museum of Germany.

• Romano-Germanic Museum with a collection of art objects from the ancient Roman period;
• the Vayraf-Richarts Museum with a collection of ivory items;
• Museum of East Asian Art.

Dresden

• the State Art Collection, which includes the Zwinger Palace, where the Old Masters Gallery and Porcelain Collection are located;
• Technical Museum;
• History Museum.

Bonn

• Beethoven Museum.

Monuments of history and architecture

• Brandenburg Gate (1788-1791); arsenal building (1695-1706);
• Cathedral of St. Hedwig (1747-1773),
• cathedral of st. Nicholas in the Gothic style (XIV century);
• Reichstag building (1884-1894);
• The world's largest zoo;
• Berlin TV tower 365 m high;
• Botanical Garden;
• Treptow Park, which houses a complex of monuments to Soviet soldiers who died in Germany.

Dresden

• Several churches, including the Rococo Hofkirche (1739-1751), the Gothic Kreuzkirche (15th century).

• 13th century citadel;
• Tower of the Battle of Nations (XIX century), erected in honor of the soldiers who fell in the battle of Leipzig with Napoleon's army in 1813;
• The Orthodox Church, erected in memory of the dead Russian soldiers (XIX century).

Bonn

• Cathedral in the Romanesque style (XI-XIII century);
• City Hall in 1782;
• The house where Ludwig van Beethoven was born in 1770; Parliament building (1950);
• Villa Hammerschmidt (residence of the President of the country);
• Schaumburg Palace (residence of the Federal Chancellor).

• Cologne Cathedral in the Gothic style with two spiers 157 m high (construction started in 1248, completed in 1880), the cathedral contains the remains of three wise men who, according to the New Testament, brought gifts to the baby Jesus;
• Church of St. Maurice im Capital (1049);
• Church of St. Gereon (XII century);
• Church of St. Clibert (XIII century);
• Zoo;
• Aquarium;
• Botanical Garden.

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The history of the lands of modern Germany goes back almost three millennia, when the tribes of the Germans lived on these lands.

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Tell briefly about German history quite difficult, because it is full of various events, but we will try.

The history of the lands of modern Germany goes back almost three millennia, when the tribes of the Germans lived on these lands. Ethnic Germans were divided into several groups, depending on their habitat. By the beginning of our era, alliances of various tribes began to actively take shape. This unification process turns the Germans into a powerful military force, which is increasingly active, especially in the 2nd century AD, invading the territories of the mistress of the world of that time - the Roman Empire.

By the 5th century AD, the first states of the Vandals, Goths and other tribes were created. The most important from a historical point of view were the tribes of the Franks. Starting from the reign of King Clovis I (481) and until 800, large territories were conquered, including Aquitaine, Provence, parts of Italy and Spain. Actually, the current territory of Germany became the basis of the state of the Franks, which collapsed in 843 and completely ceased to exist in 924. This moment in history was the beginning of German statehood.

Treaty of Verdun

This agreement, concluded in 843, becomes fundamental in German history like states. According to him, the entire territory of the kingdom of the Franks was divided into three parts, one of which was Germany, headed by Louis the German. The East Frankish state was considered the first name. In 936, Otho I became king and in 962 was crowned Holy Roman Emperor, which lasted until 1806. The Confederation of the Rhine replaced the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. This event was preceded by peasant wars of the 16th century and the invasion of Napoleon. The existence of this association turned out to be extremely short, only 7 years.

German Confederation

In 1848, a new state formation appeared - the German Confederation, which was headed by Austria and included 38 German states. But this union was short-lived. Already in 1866, the Austro-Prussian-Italian war led to its collapse.

On August 18, 1866, a new alliance of 21 German states was proclaimed, called the North German Confederation. This formation already possessed all the attributes familiar in our time - the president, the chancellor, the Reichstag, the army, the national one, and many others.

Formation of the German Empire

On January 18, 1871, the German Empire was formed on the basis of the union. This state had very progressive laws and economic policy. All this led to the fact that the country was rapidly developing in scientific, cultural and technological directions. The military machine did not stand aside either. The colossal expenditure on the army made it the best in the world by the beginning of World War I. But luck was not on Germany's side. The war ended with its defeat, the signing of a peace agreement and huge reparations, which brought countries to the brink of complete collapse. The economy was on its knees, the number of unemployed huge.

On the basis of this, fascism began to raise its head in the 1920s. On January 30, Hitler became Chancellor of Germany. It was a terrible period in the history of the country, which led to the Second World War, the most terrible and bloody in the history of mankind. The end of the existence of the III Reich was put in 1945 by the Allied forces.

After the end of the war, Germany was divided into eastern and western parts. In this form, it existed until 1990, when Germany became united - the famous fall of the Berlin Wall took place.

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58 BC e. The emperor of Rome, Julius Caesar, led his legions to the Rhine. Military camps arose, which soon turned into the first cities - Trier (18 BC), Bonn (11 BC), Cologne (50 AD), Worms (c. 75 AD).

9 AD e. Arminius, prince of the Germanic Cherusci tribe, defeated three Roman legions in the Teutoburg Forest.

800 The king of the German tribe of the Franks, Charlemagne, united the tribes and peoples in the vast lands of Europe. The Frankish state emerged.

962-1806 First Reich (Reich - state). The Saxon king Otto I forced Pope John XII to crown him in order to receive the title of Emperor (Kaiser) of the Holy Roman Empire. (From the 15th century, it began to be called the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation - by this time, Italian possessions had been lost.) The history of Germany under the First Reich is the history of individual principalities on its territory.

1356 The German King Charles IV of Habsburg promulgated the Golden Bull. According to it, seven electors received the exclusive right to elect the king. The Pope could no longer interfere in elections. The power of petty princes, counts and knights was steadily falling, but the role of cities was increasing.

1358 Founding of the Hansa - a union of 160 port and trading cities in Northern Europe. Cities grew and developed, the princes who ruled them wanted independence. In 1598 the last conference of the Hansa was held in London.

1517 The Augustinian monk Martin Luther (1483-1546) attached 95 theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg. The main thing in them: a speech against indulgences, according to which the church absolved the sins of parishioners for money. Luther denied papal authority and all external Catholic worship, such as altars, the veneration of saints. The Reformation (Protestantism) began, which led to a religious split. According to the Augsburg Religious Peace (1555), the Protestant religion became equal with the Catholic.

1618-1648 The Thirty Years' War devastates Europe, Germany's population has shrunk by a third.

1789 The revolution in France proclaimed the freedom, equality and brotherhood of all citizens. Austria and Prussia unsuccessfully tried to suppress the "Paris mob" by intervention.

1806 Emperor Franz II laid down his crown. The states from the collapsed First Reich united in the Confederation of the Rhine under Napoleon's protectorate. In Prussia and the Confederation of the Rhine, equality of all before the law was established, serfdom was abolished, freedom of trade and city self-government were introduced.

1844-1849 A wave of popular uprisings swept across Germany. In Frankfurt am Main, in Paulkirche, on March 27, 1849, the all-German national assembly adopted a constitution. The Prussian king was elected "emperor of all Germans". But Friedrich Wilhelm IV refused to accept the "lumpen crown" from "shoemakers and glovemakers", which deserves only "disgust and contempt".

1866-1870 The Prussian army defeats the Austrians, the head of government Otto von Bismarck (1818-1898) becomes a national hero. September 1, 1870 in the battle of Sedan, the French army is defeated, the German troops enter Paris.

1871 In the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, the German Empire was proclaimed - the Second Reich. Wilhelm I of Hohenzollern, the 74-year-old king of Prussia, became emperor. Bismarck was appointed the first Reich Chancellor. Imperial Constitution adopted; 5 billion francs indemnity from defeated France stimulate the German economy. The agrarian state becomes industrial.

1910 Germany ranks second in the world in terms of industrial development. The population of the empire increased from 41 million people in 1871 to 67 million in 1913. Industrial centers are growing rapidly: Berlin, Hamburg, Bremen, Lübeck, the Rhine-Westphalian region, Silesia.

1914-1918 World War I. German losses amounted to 3 million killed and 4.2 million wounded. In November 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II renounced power, power in Berlin passed into the hands of the Social Democratic Council of People's Deputies. The Second Reich no longer existed.

1919 Under the Treaty of Versailles, Alsace and Lorraine were transferred to France, part of West Prussia to Poland, and part of Silesia to Czechoslovakia. Germany had to pay unbearable reparations: 132 billion marks over 66 years, its armed forces were severely limited. Following Berlin, where the revolutionaries Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg were killed, uprisings in Bremen, Düsseldorf and other cities were suppressed. Weimer proclaimed a republic and adopted a new constitution. The severe consequences of the war and the world economic crisis crushed German industry. The German currency collapsed, there was a moment when 1 dollar was worth 4.2 billion marks! The economic crisis contributed to the political collapse of the Weimar Republic. The Communist Party of Germany turned into a party of the unemployed, and the National Socialists (members of the NSDAP) managed to win over millions of people from the middle strata, as well as young people.

1933-1945 Third Reich. After the death of President Hindenburg, Hitler proclaimed himself Fuhrer and Chancellor of the Third Reich. He promised to "do away with the Marxists and Jews", to eliminate unemployment, to win "living space" for Germany, to restore its former greatness. All political parties, except for the NSDAP, were banned, trade unions were dispersed. After the arson of the Reichstag in 1933, emergency laws were introduced and civil liberties were limited, a secret state police - the Gestapo - and the first concentration camps were created.

1938 On Kristallnacht from November 9 to 10, synagogues blazed across the country, and discriminatory laws against Jews were introduced. Later, almost all the Jews of Germany were deported to the east, to concentration camps, many were exterminated there in gas chambers. Hitler carried out the "Anschluss": the annexation of Austria to the Third Reich. The Munich Agreement was concluded on the partition of Czechoslovakia (“Munich Pact”), which was signed by the heads of governments of Great Britain, France, Germany and Italy.

1939 August 23 The Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact entered into force - an economic agreement and a secret protocol on the delimitation of spheres of interest. Hitler secured his rear, a week later Germany attacked Poland - the Second World War began.

1940 The capture of Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Luxembourg.

1941 June 22 the USSR was attacked. In the first months of the war, hundreds of thousands of prisoners of war found themselves in the "cauldrons" of the encirclement, later Leningrad was taken into the blockade, and the battle for Moscow unfolded. But Hitler's generals did not take into account the will of the Soviet people to defend their homeland at any cost.

1942 In the summer, the Wehrmacht reached the banks of the Volga and the foothills of the Caucasus. Field Marshal E. Rommel was approaching Alexandria and the Suez Canal.

1943 In February, the encircled 6th Army of Field Marshal F. Paulus surrendered at Stalingrad - a decisive turning point in the war occurred.

1944 In June, the Allies landed more than 3 million people in Normandy. July 20 - Failed assassination attempt on Hitler.

1945 On the night of May 8-9, Marshal Zhukov signed the Act of Germany's unconditional surrender. The Second World War claimed 55 million human lives. July 17 - August 2, the Potsdam Conference took place with the participation of Stalin, Truman, Churchill (later Attlee).

1945-1946 In Nuremberg, the International Court of Justice for the main war criminals worked. The whole world learned about the monstrous crimes of National Socialism. The NSDAP, its ideology, symbols, Hitler's book "Mein Kampf", the Gestapo, SS security units and other organizations were banned. Field Marshal Keitel, Ribbentrop, Kaltenbrunner and other leaders of the Third Reich were hanged by the verdict of the tribunal. Many former party and government officials have been imprisoned. Later, Chancellor Willy Brand in Warsaw knelt in front of a monument to the victims of the Warsaw ghetto. So Germany, before the eyes of the whole world, repented for terror and the unleashed world war; millions of people innocently tortured in concentration camps and killed at the fronts; destroyed countless cities and villages.

1949 May 23 The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was proclaimed, and on October 7 - the German Democratic Republic (GDR).

1955 Chancellor Konrad Adenauer paid a visit to Moscow, where it was decided to return the captured German soldiers to their homeland. Hundreds of thousands of workers were invited to Germany from Italy, Greece, Portugal, Yugoslavia, and later from Turkey. The restoration of the national economy was assisted and assisted by the "Marshall Plan" - Germany received 1.4 billion dollars. The revival of the country in the west in a short time was called an "economic miracle". Many citizens of the GDR emigrated to the West, where there were civil liberties and a more prosperous life.

1961 August 13 the Berlin Wall was erected, stretching for 136 km and equipped with the latest guard technology. It was extremely difficult to overcome it, people risked their lives. More than a hundred defectors were shot dead by border guards.

1989 After the “perestroika” in the USSR, Hungary opened its border with Austria, and a stream of refugees from the GDR poured west. On November 9, with the unbridled jubilation of the townspeople, the Berlin Wall was destroyed.

1994 The first President of Russia, Boris Yeltsin, received the parade of Russian troops who were leaving Germany forever.

2005 For the first time in the country's history, a woman has been elected to the post of Federal Chancellor - Angela Merkel.

Germany is a European country with a rich history, during which it experienced periods of unification and fragmentation, and repeatedly changed its borders. Germanic tribes lived in Central Europe in the first millennium BC, the arrival of Asian nomadic peoples in Europe at the end of the 4th century forced the Germans to move to the border zone of the Roman Empire, from where they then began to invade it. In the 5th century, separate kingdoms were created on the territory of the collapsed Roman Empire by the Germanic tribes of the Goths and Vandals.

Historically, the East Frankish state is considered the first German state. The name "Reich of the Germans" appeared in the 10th century, after several centuries the name "Reich der Deutschen" became generally recognized. In the twelfth century, the German state, thanks to the wars won, significantly expanded its borders. In the 16th century, the territory of Germany was divided into many principalities and kingdoms, among which Prussia was the most powerful. A union of 38 independent German states led by Austria was formed in 1815.

After the end of the Austro-Prussian-Italian War of 1866, the German Confederation was dissolved, and Prussia annexed the territories of several North German states that fought on the side of Austria. Four more South German states were annexed to Prussia as a result of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. In January of the same year, the German Empire was formed.

Spending significant funds (about half of the state budget) on military needs, at the end of the first decade of the twentieth century, Germany had an army with the best weapons in the world. In 1933, the Nazis led by Hitler came to power in the country, and the Third Reich was formed. Unleashed by Germany, Japan and Italy in September 1939, World War II lasted until September 1945 and ended with the defeat of Germany and its allies.

Germany as a single state ceased to exist on May 23, 1945, its territory was divided into four sectors. Three of them - French, British and American - became part of the Federal Republic of Germany, and the German Democratic Republic was formed on the territory of the USSR sector.

The unification of Germany became possible only by 1990, after the end of the Cold War, the basis for the unification was laid by the Two Plus Four Treaty, signed with the FRG and the GDR by Great Britain, the USSR, France and the USA. Today, Germany is the most populous country in Europe after Russia, with a powerful economy and political influence. Germany is a member of the European Union and NATO and is a member of the G8.